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instantly changed into stones； or into fountains； ghosts appearing in
mirrors； something issuing from nothing； even gods changed into beasts
and men and infinite other absurdities of the same kind。
＇59＇ （1） Some persons think； perhaps； that fiction is limited by fiction；
and not by understanding； in other words； after I have formed some
fictitious idea； and have affirmed of my own free will that it exists under a
certain form in nature； I am thereby precluded from thinking of it under
any other form。 （2） For instance； when I have feigned （to repeat their
argument） that the nature of body is of a certain kind； and have of my own
free will desired to convince myself that it actually exists under this form；
I am no longer able to hypothesize that a fly； for example； is infinite； so；
when I have hypothesized the essence of the soul； I am not able to think of
it as square； &c。
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On the Improvement of the Understanding
＇60＇ （1） But these arguments demand further inquiry。 （2） First； their
upholders must either grant or deny that we can understand anything。 If
they grant it； then necessarily the same must be said of understanding； as
is said of fiction。 （3） If they deny it； let us； who know that we do know
something； see what they mean。 （4） They assert that the soul can be
conscious of； and perceive in a variety of ways； not itself nor things which
exist； but only things which are neither in itself nor anywhere else； in other
words； that the soul can； by its unaided power； create sensations or ideas
unconnected with things。 （5） In fact； they regard the soul as a sort of god。
（60：6） Further； they assert that we or our soul have such freedom that we
can constrain ourselves； or our soul； or even our soul's freedom。 （7） For；
after it has formed a fictitious idea； and has given its assent thereto； it
cannot think or feign it in any other manner； but is constrained by the first
fictitious idea to keep all its other thoughts in harmony therewith。 （8）
Our opponents are thus driven to admit； in support of their fiction； the
absurdities which I have just enumerated； and which are not worthy of
rational refutation。
＇61＇ （1） While leaving such persons in their error； we will take care
to derive from our argument with them a truth serviceable for our purpose；
namely； ＇61a＇ that the mind； in paying attention to a thing hypothetical or
false； so as to meditate upon it and understand it； and derive the proper
conclusions in due order therefrom； will readily discover its falsity； and if
the thing hypothetical be in its nature true； and the mind pays attention
to it； so as to understand it； and deduce the truths which are derivable from
it； the mind will proceed with an uninterrupted series of apt conclusions；
in the same way as it would at once discover （as we showed just now） the
absurdity of a false hypothesis； and of the conclusions drawn from it。
＇62＇ （1） We need； therefore； be in no fear of forming hypotheses； so
long as we have a clear and distinct perception of what is involved。 （2）
For； if we were to assert； haply； that men are suddenly turned into beasts；
the statement would be extremely general； so general that there would be
no conception； that is； no idea or connection of subject and predicate； in
our mind。 （3） If there were such a conception we should at the same time
be aware of the means and the causes whereby the event took place。 （4）
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Moreover； we pay no attention to the nature of the subject and the
predicate。
＇63＇ （1） Now； if the first idea be not fictitious； and if all the other
ideas be deduced therefrom； our hurry to form fictitious ideas will
gradually subside。 （2） Further； as a fictitious idea cannot be clear and
distinct； but is necessarily confused； and as all confusion arises from the
fact that the mind has only partial knowledge of a thing either simple or
complex； and does not distinguish between the known and the unknown；
and； again； that it directs its attention promiscuously to all parts of an
object at once without making distinctions； it follows； first； that if the idea
be of something very simple； it must necessarily be clear and distinct。 （3）
For a very simple object cannot be known in part； it must either be known
altogether or not at all。
＇64＇ （1） Secondly； it follows that if a complex object be divided by
thought into a number of simple component parts； and if each be regarded
separately； all confusion will disappear。 （2） Thirdly； it follows that
fiction cannot be simple； but is made up of the blending of several
confused ideas of diverse objects or actions existent in nature； or rather is
composed of attention directed to all such ideas at once； ＇64b＇ and
unaccompanied by any mental assent。 （64：3） Now a fiction that was
simple would be clear and distinct； and therefore true； also a fiction
composed only of distinct ideas would be clear and distinct； and therefore
true。 （4） For instance； when we know the nature of the circle and the
square； it is impossible for us to blend together these two figures； and to
hypothesize a square circle； any more than a square soul； or things of that
kind。
＇65＇ （1） Let us shortly come to our conclusion； and again repeat that
we need have no fear of confusing with true ideas that which is only a
fiction。 （2） As for the first sort of fiction of which we have already
spoken； when a thing is clearly conceived； we saw that if the existence of a
that thing is in itself an eternal trut fiction can have no part in it； but if the
existence of the conceived be not an eternal truth； we have only to be
careful such existence be compared to the thing's essence； and to
consider the order of nature。 （64：3） As for the second sort of fiction； which
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we stated to