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from the high price of its produce； which； however advantageous
to the landlord who receives it； is surely no advantage to the
consumer who pays it。 Were the produce of agriculture to be sold
for a lower price； the same net surplus would not remain； after
defraying the expenses of cultivation； but agriculture would be
still equally productive to the general stock； and the only
difference would be； that as the landlord was formerly enriched
by the high price； at the expense of the community； the community
would now profit by the low price at the expense of the landlord。
The high price in which the rent or net surplus originates； while
it enriches the landlord who has the produce of agriculture to
sell； diminishes in the same proportion the wealth of those who
are its purchasers； and on this account it is quite inaccurate to
consider the landlord's rent as a clear addition to the national
wealth。' In other parts of his work he uses the same； or even
stronger language； and in a note on the subject of taxes； he
speaks of the high price of the produce of land as advantageous
to those who receive it； it but proportionably injurious to those
who pay it。 'In this view；' he adds； 'it can form no general
addition to the stock of the community； as the net surplus in
question is nothing more than a revenue transferred from one
class to another； and from the mere circumstance of its thus
changing hands； it is clear that no fund can arise out of which
to pay taxes。 The revenue which pays for the produce of land
exists already in the hands of those who purchase that produce；
and； if the price of subsistence were lower； it would still
remain in their hands； where it would be just as available for
taxation； as when by a higher price it is transferred to the
landed proprietor。'（5*）
That there are some circumstances connected with rent； which
have an affinity to a natural monopoly； will he readily allowed。
The extent of the earth itself is limited； and cannot be enlarged
by human demand。 And the inequality of soils occasions； even at
an early period of society a comparative scarcity of the best
lands； and so far is undoubtedly one of the causes of rent
properly so called。 On this account； perhaps； the term partial
monopoly might be fairly applicable。 But the scarcity of land；
thus implied； is by no means alone sufficient to produce the
effects observed。 And a more accurate investigation of the
subject will show us how essentially different the high price of
raw produce is； both in its nature and origin； and the laws by
which it is governed； from the high price of a common monopoly。
The causes of the high price of raw produce may be stated to
be three。
First； and mainly； that quality of the earth； by which it can
be made to yield a greater portion of the necessaries of life
than is required for the maintenance of the persons employed on
the land。
Secondly； that quality peculiar to the necessaries of life of
being able to create their own demand； or to raise up a number of
demanders in proportion to the quantity of necessaries produced。
And； thirdly； the comparative scarcity of the most fertile
land。
The qualities of the soil and of its products； here noticed
as the primary causes of the high price of raw produce； are the
gifts of nature to man。 They are quite unconnected with monopoly；
and yet are so absolutely essential to the existence of rent；
that without them； no degree of scarcity or monopoly could have
occasioned that excess of the price of raw produce； above the
cost of production； which shows itself in this form。
If； for instance； the soil of the earth had been such； that；
however well directed might have been the industry of man； he
could not have produced from it more than was barely sufficient
to maintain those； whose labour and attention were necessary to
its products； though； in this case； food and raw materials would
have been evidently scarcer than at present； and the land might
have been； in the same manner； monopolized by particular owners；
vet it is quite clear； that neither rent； nor any essential
surplus produce of the land in the form of high profits； could
have existed。
It is equally clear； that if the necessaries of life the most
important products of land … had not the property of creating an
increase of demand proportioned to their increased quantity； such
increased quantity would occasion a fall in their exchangeable
value。 However abundant might be the produce of a country； its
population might remain stationary And this abundance； without a
proportionate demand； and with a very high corn price of labour；
which would naturally take place under these circumstances； might
reduce the price of raw produce； like the price of manufactures；
to the cost of production。
It has been sometimes argued； that it is mistaking the
principle of population； to imagine； that the increase of food；
or of raw produce alone； can occasion a proportionate increase of
population。 This is no doubt true； but it must be allowed； as has
been justly observed by Adam Smith； that 'when food is provided；
it is comparatively easy to find the necessary clothing and
lodging。； And it should always be recollected； that land does not
produce one commodity alone； but in addition to that most
indispensable of all commodities … food … it produces also the
materials for the other necessaries of life； and the labour
required to work up these materials is of course never excluded
from the consideration。（6*）
It is； therefore； strictly true； that land produces the
necessaries of life； produces food； materials； and labour；
produces the means by which； and by which alone； an increase of
people may be brought into being； and supported。 In this respect
it is fundamentally different from every other kind of machine
known to man； and it is natural to suppose； that it should be
attended with some peculiar effects。
If the cotton machinery； in this country； were to go on
increasing at its present rate； or even much faster； but instead
of producing one particular sort of substance which may be used
for some parts of dress and furniture； etc。 had the qualities of
land； and could yield what； with the assistance of a little
labour； economy； and skill； could furnish food； clothing； and
lodging； in such proportions as to create an increase of
population equal to the increased supply of these necessaries；
the demand for the products of such improved machinery would
continue in excess above the cost of production； and this excess
would no longer exclusively belong to the machinery of the
land。（7*）
There is a radical difference in the cause of a demand for
those objects which are strictly necessary to the support of
human life； and a demand for all other commodities。 In all other
commodities the demand is exterior to； and independent of； the
production itself； and in the case of a monopoly； whether na