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on sophistical refutations-第19章

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case。 'When you have understanding of anything; do you understand it?'



'Yes。' 'But you have understanding of a stone: therefore you



understand of a stone。' No: the one phrase is in the genitive; 'of a



stone'; while the other is in the accusative; 'a stone': and what



was granted was that 'you understand that; not of that; of which you



have understanding'; so that you understand not 'of a stone'; but 'the



stone'。



  Thus that arguments of this kind do not prove solecism but merely



appear to do so; and both why they so appear and how you should meet



them; is clear from what has been said。







                                33







  We must also observe that of all the arguments aforesaid it is



easier with some to see why and where the reasoning leads the hearer



astray; while with others it is more difficult; though often they



are the same arguments as the former。 For we must call an argument the



same if it depends upon the same point; but the same argument is apt



to be thought by some to depend on diction; by others on accident; and



by others on something else; because each of them; when worked with



different terms; is not so clear as it was。 Accordingly; just as in



fallacies that depend on ambiguity; which are generally thought to



be the silliest form of fallacy; some are clear even to the man in the



street (for humorous phrases nearly all depend on diction; e。g。 'The



man got the cart down from the stand'; and 'Where are you bound?'



'To the yard arm'; and 'Which cow will calve afore?' 'Neither; but



both behind;' and 'Is the North wind clear?' 'No; indeed; for it has



murdered the beggar and the merchant。〃 Is he a Good enough…King?' 'No;



indeed; a Rob…son': and so with the great majority of the rest as



well); while others appear to elude the most expert (and it is a



symptom of this that they often fight about their terms; e。g。



whether the meaning of 'Being' and 'One' is the same in all their



applications or different; for some think that 'Being' and 'One'



mean the same; while others solve the argument of Zeno and



Parmenides by asserting that 'One' and 'Being' are used in a number of



senses); likewise also as regards fallacies of Accident and each of



the other types; some of the arguments will be easier to see while



others are more difficult; also to grasp to which class a fallacy



belongs; and whether it is a refutation or not a refutation; is not



equally easy in all cases。



  An incisive argument is one which produces the greatest



perplexity: for this is the one with the sharpest fang。 Now perplexity



is twofold; one which occurs in reasoned arguments; respecting which



of the propositions asked one is to demolish; and the other in



contentious arguments; respecting the manner in which one is to assent



to what is propounded。 Therefore it is in syllogistic arguments that



the more incisive ones produce the keenest heart…searching。 Now a



syllogistic argument is most incisive if from premisses that are as



generally accepted as possible it demolishes a conclusion that is



accepted as generally as possible。 For the one argument; if the



contradictory is changed about; makes all the resulting syllogisms



alike in character: for always from premisses that are generally



accepted it will prove a conclusion; negative or positive as the



case may be; that is just as generally accepted; and therefore one



is bound to feel perplexed。 An argument; then; of this kind is the



most incisive; viz。 the one that puts its conclusion on all fours with



the propositions asked; and second comes the one that argues from



premisses; all of which are equally convincing: for this will



produce an equal perplexity as to what kind of premiss; of those



asked; one should demolish。 Herein is a difficulty: for one must



demolish something; but what one must demolish is uncertain。 Of



contentious arguments; on the other hand; the most incisive is the one



which; in the first place; is characterized by an initial



uncertainty whether it has been properly reasoned or not; and also



whether the solution depends on a false premiss or on the drawing of a



distinction; while; of the rest; the second place is held by that



whose solution clearly depends upon a distinction or a demolition; and



yet it does not reveal clearly which it is of the premisses asked;



whose demolition; or the drawing of a distinction within it; will



bring the solution about; but even leaves it vague whether it is on



the conclusion or on one of the premisses that the deception depends。



  Now sometimes an argument which has not been properly reasoned is



silly; supposing the assumptions required to be extremely contrary



to the general view or false; but sometimes it ought not to be held in



contempt。 For whenever some question is left out; of the kind that



concerns both the subject and the nerve of the argument; the reasoning



that has both failed to secure this as well; and also failed to reason



properly; is silly; but when what is omitted is some extraneous



question; then it is by no means to be lightly despised; but the



argument is quite respectable; though the questioner has not put his



questions well。



  Just as it is possible to bring a solution sometimes against the



argument; at others against the questioner and his mode of



questioning; and at others against neither of these; likewise also



it is possible to marshal one's questions and reasoning both against



the thesis; and against the answerer and against the time; whenever



the solution requires a longer time to examine than the period



available。







                                34







  As to the number; then; and kind of sources whence fallacies arise



in discussion; and how we are to show that our opponent is



committing a fallacy and make him utter paradoxes; moreover; by the



use of what materials solescism is brought about; and how to



question and what is the way to arrange the questions; moreover; as to



the question what use is served by all arguments of this kind; and



concerning the answerer's part; both as a whole in general; and in



particular how to solve arguments and solecisms…on all these things



let the foregoing discussion suffice。 It remains to recall our



original proposal and to bring our discussion to a close with a few



words upon it。



  Our programme was; then; to discover some faculty of reasoning about



any theme put before us from the most generally accepted premisses



that there are。 For that is the essential task of the art of



discussion (dialectic) and of examination (peirastic)。 Inasmuch;



however; as it is annexed to it; on account of the near presence of



the art of sophistry (sophistic); not only to be able to conduct an



examination dialectically but also with a show of knowledge; we



therefore proposed for our treatise not 
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