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an event； insurrection is not only the most sacred right but the most
imperative duty。 … The new theory is now put into practice； and the
dogma of the sovereignty of the people； interpreted by the crowd； is
to result in a complete anarchy； up to the moment when； interpreted by
its leaders； it produces perfect despotism。
IV。 BIRTH OF SOCIALIST THEORY； ITS TWO SIDES。
The second result。 … The new theory leads to despotism。 …
Precedents for this theory。 … Administrative centralization。 … The
Utopia of the Economists。 … Invalidity of preceding rights。 …
Collateral associations not tolerated。 … Complete alienation of the
individual from the community。 … Rights of the State in relation to
property； education and religion。 … The State a Spartan convent。
For this theory has two aspects； whereas one side leads towards
the perpetual demolition of government； the other results in the
unlimited dictatorship of the State。 The new social contract is not a
historic pact； like the English Declaration of Rights in 1688； or the
Dutch federation in 1579； entered into by actual and living
individuals； admitting acquired situations； groups already formed；
established positions； and drawn up to recognize； define； guarantee
and complete anterior rights。 Antecedent to the social contract no
veritable right exist； for veritable rights are born solely out of the
social contract； the only valid one； since it is the only one agreed
upon between beings perfectly equal and perfectly free； so many
abstract creatures； so many species of mathematical units； all of the
same value； all playing the same part and whose inequality or
constraint never disturbs the common understanding。 Hence at the
moment of its completion； all other facts are nullified。 Property；
family； church； no ancient institution may invoke any right against
the new State。 The area on which it is built up must be considered
vacant； if old structures are partly allowed to remain it is only in
its name and for its benefit； to be enclosed within its barriers and
appropriated to its use； the entire soil of humanity is its property。
On the other hand it is not； according to the American doctrine； an
association for mutual protection； a society like other societies；
circumscribed in its purpose； restricted to its office； limited in its
powers； and by which individuals reserving to themselves the better
portion of their property and persons； assess each other for the
maintenance of an army； a police； tribunals； highways； schools； in
short； the major instruments of public safety and utility； at the same
time withholding the remainder of local； general； spiritual and
material services in favor of private initiative and of spontaneous
associations that may arise as occasion or necessity calls for them。
Our State is not to be a simple utilitarian machine； a convenient；
handy implement； of which the workman avails himself without
abandoning the free use of his hand； or the simultaneous use of other
implements。 Being elder born； the only son and sole representative of
Reason it must； to ensure its sway； leave nothing beyond its grasp。 …
In this respect the old régime paves the way for the new one； while
the established system inclines minds beforehand to the budding
theory。 Through administrative centralization the State already； for a
long time； has its hands everywhere。＇19＇
〃You must know；〃 says Law to the Marquis d'Argenson； 〃that the
kingdom of France is governed by thirty intendants。 You have neither
parliaments； assemblies or governors； simply thirty masters of
requests； provincial clerks； on whom depends the happiness or misery；
the fruitfulness or sterility of these provinces。〃
The king； in fact； sovereign； father； and universal guardian；
manages local affairs through his delegates； and intervenes in private
affairs through his favors or lettres…de…cachet（royal orders of
imprisonment）。 Such an example and such a course followed for fifty
years excites the imagination。 No other instrument is more useful for
carrying large reforms out at one time。 Hence； far from restricting
the central power the economists are desirous of extending its action。
Instead of setting up new dikes against it they interest themselves
only in destroying what is left of the old dikes still interfering
with it。 〃The system of counter…forces in a government；〃 says Quesnay
and his disciples； 〃is a fatal idea 。 。 。 The speculations on which
the system of counter…balance is founded are chimerical 。 。 。 。 Let
the government have a full comprehension of its duties and be left
free。 。 。 The State must govern according to the essential laws of
order； and in this case unlimited power is requisite。〃 On the approach
of the Revolution the same doctrine reappears； except in the
substitution of one term for another term。 In the place of the
sovereignty of the king the 〃Contrat social〃 substitutes the
sovereignty of the people。 The latter； however； is much more absolute
than the former； and； in the democratic convent which Rousseau
constructs； on Spartan and Roman model； the individual is nothing and
the State everything。
In effect； 〃the clauses of the social contract reduce themselves to
one； namely； the total transfer of each associate with all his rights
to the community。〃＇20＇ Every one surrenders himself entirely； 〃just as
he stands； he and all his forces； of which his property forms a
portion。〃 There is no exception nor reservation； whatever he may have
been previously and whatever may have belonged to him is no longer his
own。 Henceforth whatever he becomes or whatever he may possess
devolves on him only through the delegation of the social body； the
universal proprietor and absolute master。 All rights must be vested in
the State and none in the individual； otherwise there would be
litigation between them； and； 〃as there is no common superior to
decide between them〃 their litigation would never end。 One the
contrary； through the complete donation which each one makes of
himself； 〃the unity is as perfect as possible；〃 having renounced
himself 〃he has no further claim to make。〃
This being admitted let us trace the consequences。 …
In the first place； I enjoy my property only through tolerance and
at second…hand； for； according to the social contract； I have
surrendered it；＇21＇ 〃it now forms a portion of the national estate；〃
If I retain the use of its for the time being it is through a
concession of the State which makes me a 〃depositary〃 of it。 And this
favor must not be considered as restitution。 〃Far from accepting the
property of individuals society despoils them of it； simply converting
the usurpation into a veritable right； the enjoyment of it into
proprietorship。〃 Previous to the social contract I was possessor not
by right but in fact and even unjustly if I had large possessions；
for； 〃every man has naturally a right to whatever he needs；〃 and I
h