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commoner； sovereign or subject； proprietor or proletary； ignorant or
cultivated； peasant or citizen； slave or master； all being phony
qualities which we are not to heed； as their origin is tainted with
violence and robbery。 Strip off these superfluous garments； let us
take Man in himself； the same under all conditions； in all situations；
in all countries； in all ages； and strive to ascertain what sort of
association is the best adapted to him。 The problem thus stated； the
rest follows。 … In accordance with the customs of the classic
mentality； and with the precepts of the prevailing ideology； a
political system is now constructed after a mathematical model。＇2＇ A
simple statement is selected； and set apart； very general； familiar；
readily apparent； and easily understood by the most ignorant and
inattentive schoolboy。 Reject every difference； which separates one
man from other men； retain of him only the portion common to him and
to others。 The remainder constitutes Man in general； or in other
words；
〃a sensitive and rational being who； thus endowed； avoids pain and
seeks pleasure；〃 and therefore aspiring to happiness； namely； a stable
condition in which one enjoys greater pleasure than pain；〃＇3＇ or；
again； 〃a sensitive being capable of forming rational opinions and of
acquiring moral ideas。〃＇4＇
Anyone （they say）may by himself experience this elementary idea；
and can verify it at the first glance。 Such is the social unit； let
several of these be combined； a thousand； a hundred thousand； a
million； twenty…six millions； and you have the French people。 Men born
at twenty…one years of age； without relations； without a past； without
traditions； without a country； are supposed to be assembled for the
first time and； for the first time； to treat with each other。 In this
position； at the moment of contracting together； all are equal： for；
as the definition states； the extrinsic and spurious qualities through
which alone all differ have been rejected。 All are free； for；
according to the definition； the unjust thralldom imposed on all by
brute force and by hereditary prejudice has been suppressed。 … But if
all men are equal； no reason exists why； in this contract； any special
advantage should be conceded to one more than to another。 Accordingly
all shall be equal before the law； no person； or family； or class；
shall be allowed any privilege； no one shall claim a right of which
another might be deprived； no one shall be subject to any duty from
another is exempt。 … On the other hand； all being free； each enters
with a free will along with the group of wills constitute the new
community； it is necessary that in the common resolutions he should
fully concur。 Only on these conditions does he bind himself； he is
bound to respect laws only because he has assisted in making them； and
to obey magistrates only because he has aided in electing them。
Underneath all legitimate authority his consent or his vote must be
apparent； while； in the humblest citizen； the most exalted of public
powers must recognize a member of their own sovereignty。 No one may
alienate or lose this portion of his sovereignty； it is inseparable
from his person； and； on delegating it to another； he reserves to
himself full possession of it。 … The liberty； equality and sovereignty
of the people constitute the first articles of the social contract。
These are rigorously deduced from a primary definition； other rights
of the citizen are to be no less rigorously deduced from it； the main
features of the constitution； the most important civil and political
laws； in short； the order； the form and the spirit of the new state。
II。 NAIVE CONVICTIONS
The first result。 … The theory easily applied。 … Confidence in it
due to belief in man's inherent goodness and reasonableness。
Hence； two consequences。…In the first place； a society thus
organized is the only just one； for； the reverse of all others； it is
not the result of a blind subjection to traditions； but of a contract
concluded among equals； examined in open daylight； and assented to in
full freedom。＇5＇ The social contract； composed of demonstrated
theorems； has the authority of geometry； hence an equal value at all
times； in every place； and for every people； it is accordingly
rightfully established。 Those who put an obstacle in its way are
enemies of the human race； whether a government； an aristocracy or a
clergy； they must be overthrown。 Revolt is simply just defense； in
withdrawing ourselves from their hands we only recover what is
wrongfully held and which legitimately belongs to us。 … In the second
place； this social code； as just set forth； once promulgated； is
applicable without misconception or resistance； for it is a species of
moral geometry； simpler than any other； reduced to first principles；
founded on the clearest and most popular notions； and； in four steps；
leading to capital truths。 The comprehension and application of these
truths demand no preparatory study or profound reflection； Reason is
enough； and even common sense。 Prejudice and selfishness alone might
impair the testimony； but never will testimony be wanting in a sound
brain and in an upright heart。 Explain the rights of man to a laborer
or to a peasant and at once he becomes an able politician； teach
children the citizen's catechism and； on leaving school； they
comprehend duties and rights as well as the four fundamental
principles。 … Thereupon hope spreads her wings to the fullest extent；
all obstacles seem removed。 It is admitted that； of itself； and
through its own force； the theory engenders its own application； and
that it suffices for men to decree or accept the social compact to
acquire suddenly by this act the capacity for comprehending it and the
disposition to carry it out。
What a wonderful confidence； at first inexplicable； which assume
with regard to man an idea which we no longer hold。 Man； indeed； was
regarded as essentially good and reasonable。 … Rational； that is to
say； capable of assenting to a plain obvious principle； of following
an ulterior chain of argument； of understanding and accepting the
final conclusion； of extracting for himself； on the occasion calling
for it； the varied consequences to which it leads： such is the
ordinary man in the eyes of the writers of the day； they judged him by
themselves。 To them the human intellect is their own； the classic
intellect。 For a hundred and fifty years it ruled in literature； in
philosophy； in science； in education； in conversation； by virtue of
tradition； of usage and of good taste。 No other was tolerated and no
other was imagined； and if； within this closed circle； a stranger
succeeds in introducing himself； it is on condition of adopting the
oratorical idiom which the raison raisonnante imposes on all its
guests； on Greeks； Englishmen； barbarians； peasants and savages；
however different from each other and however different