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their discoveries； popularized； slowly deposit in the human brain。
A second principle has to be established to complete the
foundations of history。 Discovered by Montesquieu it still to…day
serves as a constructive support； and； if we resume the work； as if on
the substructure of the master's edifice； it is simply owing to
accumulated erudition placing at our disposal more substantial and
more abundant materials。 In human society all parts are
interdependent； no modification of one can take place without
effecting proportionate changes in the others。 Institutions； laws and
customs are not mingled together； as in a heap； through chance or
caprice； but connected one with the other through convenience or
necessity； as in a harmony。＇22＇ According as authority is in all； in
several or in one hand； according as the sovereign admits or rejects
laws superior to himself； with intermediary powers below him；
everything changes or tends to differ in meaning and in importance：
* public intelligence；
* education；
* the form of judgments；
* the nature and order of penalties；
* the condition of women；
* military organization
* and the nature and the extent of taxation。
A multitude of subordinate wheels depend on the great central
wheel。 For if the clock runs； it is owing to the harmony of its
various parts； from which it follows that； on this harmony ceasing；
the clock gets out of order。 But； besides the principal spring； there
are others which； acting on or in combination with it； give to each
clock a special character and a peculiar movement。 Such； in the first
place； is climate； that is to say； the degree of heat or cold；
humidity or dryness； with its infinite effects on man's physical and
moral attributes； followed by its influence on political； civil and
domestic servitude or freedom。 Likewise the soil； according to its
fertility； its position and its extent。 Likewise the physical régime；
according as a people is composed of hunters； shepherds or
agriculturists。 Likewise the fecundity of the race； and the consequent
slow or rapid increase of population； and also the excess in number；
now of males and now of females。 And finally； likewise； are national
character and religion。 … All these causes； each added to the other；
or each limited by the other； contribute together to form a total
result； namely society。 Simple or complex； stable or unstable；
barbarous or civilized； this society contains within itself its
explanations of its being。 Strange as a social structure may be； it
can be explained； also its institutions； however contradictory。
Neither prosperity； nor decline； nor despotism； nor freedom； is the
result of a throw of the dice； of luck or an unexpected turn of events
caused by rash men。 They are conditions we must live with。 In any
event； it is useful to understand them； either to improve our
situation or bear it patiently； sometimes to carry out appropriate
reforms； sometimes to renounce impracticable reforms； now to assume
the authority necessary for success； and now the prudence making us
abstain。
IV。 THE NEW PSYCHOLOGY。
The transformation of psychology。 … Condillac。 … The theory of
sensation and of signs。
We now reach the core of moral science； the human being in
general。 The natural history of the mind must be dealt with； and this
must be done as we have done the others； by discarding all prejudice
and adhering to facts； taking analogy for our guide； beginning with
origins and following； step by step； the development by which the
infant； the savage； the uncultivated primitive man； is converted into
the rational and cultivated man。 Let us consider life at the outset；
the animal at the lowest degree on the scale； the human being as soon
as it is born。 The first thing we find is perception； agreeable or
disagreeable； and next a want； propensity or desire； and therefore at
last； by means of a physiological mechanism； voluntary or involuntary
movements； more or less accurate and more or less appropriate and
coordinated。 And this elementary fact is not merely primitive； it is；
again； constant and universal； since we encounter it at each moment of
each life； and in the most complicated as well as in the simplest。 Let
us accordingly ascertain whether it is not the thread with which all
our mental cloth is woven； and whether its spontaneous unfolding； and
the knotting of mesh after mesh； is not finally to produce the entire
network of our thought and passion。 … Condillac （1715…1780）provides
us here with an incomparable clarity and precision with the answers to
all our questions； which； however the revival of theological prejudice
and German metaphysics was to bring into discredit in the beginning of
the nineteenth century； but which fresh observation； the establishment
of mental pathology； and dissection have now （in 1875） brought back；
justified and completed。＇23＇ Locke had already stated that our ideas
all originate in outward or inward experience。 Condillac shows further
that the actual elements of perception； memory； idea； imagination；
judgment； reasoning； knowledge are sensations； properly so called； or
revived sensations； our loftiest ideas are derived from no other
material； for they can be reduced to signs which are themselves
sensations of a certain kind。 Sensations accordingly form the
substance of human or of animal intelligence； but the former
infinitely surpasses the latter in this； that； through the creation of
signs； it succeeds in isolating； abstracting and noting fragments of
sensations； that is to say； in forming； combining and employing
general conceptions。 … This being granted； we are able to verify all
our ideas； for； through reflection； we can revive and reconstruct the
ideas we had formed without any reflection。 No abstract definitions
exist at the outset； abstraction is ulterior and derivative； foremost
in each science must be placed examples； experiences； evident facts；
from these we derive our general idea。 In the same way we derive from
several general ideas of the same degree another general idea； and so
on successively； step by step； always proceeding according to the
natural order of things； by constant analysis； using expressive signs；
as with mathematicians in passing from calculation by the fingers to
calculation by numerals； and from this to calculation by letters； and
who； calling upon the eyes to aid Reason； depict the inward analogy of
quantities by the outward analogy of symbols。 In this way science
becomes complete by means of a properly organized language。＇24＇ …
Through this reversal of the usual method we summarily dispose of
disputes about words； escape the illusions of human speech； simplify
study； remodel education； enhance discoveries； subject every assertion
to control； and bring all truths within reach of all understandings。
V。 THE ANALYTICAL METHOD。
The analytical method。 … Its