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Every circumstance； whatever it may be； is conditioned； and； its
conditions being given； it never fails to conform to them。 Of two
links forming a chain； the first always draws on the second。 There are
laws：
* for numbers； forms； and motions；
* for the revolution of the planets and the fall of bodies；
* for the diffusion of light and the radiation of heat；
* for the attractions and repulsion of electricity；
* for chemical combinations； and
* for the birth； equilibrium and dissolution of organic bodies。
They exist for the birth； maintenance； and development of human
societies； for the formation； conflict； and direction of ideas；
passions and determinations of human individuals。＇14＇ In all this； Man
is bound up with nature； hence； if we would comprehend him； we must
observe him in her； after her； and like her； with the same
independence； the same precautions； and in the same spirit。 Through
this remark alone the method of the moral sciences is fixed。 In
history； in psychology； in morals； in politics； the thinkers of the
preceding century； Pascal； Bossuet； Descartes； Fenelon； Malebrance；
and La Bruyère； all based their thoughts on dogma； It is plain to
every one qualified to read them that their base is predetermined。
Religion provided them with a complete theory of the moral order of
things； according to this theory； latent or exposed； they described
Man and accommodated their observations to the preconceived model。 The
writers of the eighteenth century rejected this method： they dwell on
Man； on the observable Man； and on his surroundings； in their eyes；
conclusions about the soul； its origin； and its destiny； must come
afterwards and depend wholly； not on that which the Revelation
provided； but on that which observation does and will provide。 The
moral sciences are now divorced from theology and attach themselves；
as if a prolongation of them； to the physical sciences。
III。 THE TRANSFORMATION OF HISTORY。
Voltaire。 … Criticism and conceptions of unity。 … Montesquieu。 … An
outline of social laws。
Through the separation from theology and the attachment to natural
science the humanities become science。 In history； every foundation on
which we now build； is laid。 Compare Bossuet's 〃Discours sur
l'histoire universelle；〃 with Voltaire's 〃Essai sur les m？urs；〃 and we
at once see how new and profound these foundations were。 … The
critics of religious dogma here establish their fundamental principle：
in view of the fact that the laws of nature are universal and
permanent it follows that； in the moral world； as in the physical
world； there can be no exception from them； and that no arbitrary or
foreign force intervenes to disturb the regular scientific procedures；
which will provide a sure means of discerning myth from truth。＇15＇
Biblical exegesis is born out of this maxim； and not alone that of
Voltaire； but also the critical explanatory methods of the future。
＇16＇ Meanwhile they skeptically examine the annals of all people；
carelessly cutting away and suppressing； too hastily； extravagantly；
especially where the ancients are concerned； because their historical
expedition is simply a scouting trip； but nevertheless with such an
overall insight that we may still approve almost all the outlines of
their summary chart。 The （newly discovered） primitive Man was not a
superior being； enlightened from above； but a coarse savage； naked and
miserable； slow of growth； sluggish in progress； the most destitute
and most needy of all animals； and； on this account； sociable； endowed
like the bee and the beaver with an instinct for living in groups； and
moreover an imitator like the monkey； but more intelligent； capable of
passing by degrees from the language of gesticulation to that of
articulation； beginning with a monosyllabic idiom which gradually
increases in richness； precision and subtlety。＇17＇ How many centuries
are requisite to attain to this primitive language！ How many centuries
more to the discovery of the most necessary arts； the use of fire； the
fabrication of 〃hatches of silex and jade〃； the melting and refining
of metals； the domestication of animals； the production and
modification of edible plants； the formation of early civilized and
durable communities； the discovery of writing； figures and
astronomical periods。＇18＇ Only after a dawn of vast and infinite
length do we see in Chaldea and in China the commencement of an
accurate chronological history。 There are five or six of these great
independent centers of spontaneous civilization； China； Babylon；
ancient Persia； India； Egypt； Phoenicia； and the two American empires。
On collecting these fragments together； on reading such of their books
as have been preserved； and which travelers bring to us； the five
Kings of the Chinese； the Vedas of the Hindus； the Zoroastrians of the
ancient Persians； we find that all contain religions； moral theories；
philosophies and institutions； as worthy of study as our own。 Three of
these codes； those of India； China and the Muslims； still at the
present time govern countries as vast as our Europe； and nations of
equal importance。 We must not； like Bossuet； 〃overlook the universe in
a universal history；〃 and subordinate humanity to a small population
confined to a desolate region around the Dead Sea。＇19＇ Human history
is a thing of natural growth like the rest； its direction is due to
its own elements； no external force guides it； but the inward forces
that create it； it is not tending to any prescribed end but developing
a result。 And the chief result is the progress of the human mind。
〃Amidst so many ravages and so much destruction； we see a love of
order secretly animating the human species； and forestalling its utter
ruin。 It is one of the springs of nature ever recovering its energy；
it is the source of the formation of the codes of nations； it causes
the law and the ministers of the law to be respected in Tinquin and in
the islands of Formosa as well as in Rome。〃 Man thus possesses； said
Voltaire； a 〃principle of Reason；〃 namely； a 〃an instinct for
engineering〃 suggesting to him useful implements；＇20＇ also an instinct
of right suggesting to him his moral conceptions。 These two instincts
form a part of his makeup； he has them from his birth； 〃as birds have
their feathers； and bears their hair。 Hence he is perfectible through
nature； and merely conforms to nature in improving his mind and in
bettering his condition。 Extend the idea farther along with Turgot and
Condorcet；＇21＇ and； with all its exaggerations； we see arising； before
the end of the century； our modern theory of progress； that which
founds all our aspirations on the boundless advance of the sciences；
on the increase of comforts which their applied discoveries constantly
bring to the human condition； and on the increase of good sense which
their discoveries； popularized； slowly deposit in the human brain。
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