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conduct； personal motives do not prevail over public motives； he might
be a saint like Louis IX； a stoic like Marcus Aurelius； while
remaining a seignior； a man of the world like the people of his court；
yet more badly brought up； worse surrounded； more solicited； more
tempted and more blindfolded。 At the very least he has； like them； his
own vanity； his own tastes； his own relatives； his mistress； his wife；
his friends； all intimate and influential solicitors who must first be
satisfied； while the nation only comes after them。 … The result is；
that； for a hundred years； from 1672 to 1774； whenever he makes war it
is through wounded pride； through family interest； through calculation
of private advantages； or to gratify a woman。 Louis XV maintains his
wars yet worse than in undertaking them；〃＇39＇ while Louis XVI； during
the whole of his foreign policy； finds himself hemmed in by the
marriage he has made。 … At home the king lives like other nobles；
but more grandly； because he is the greatest lord in France； I shall
describe his court presently； and further on we shall see by what
exactions this pomp is made possible。 In the meantime let us note two
or three details。 According to authentic statements； Louis XV expended
on Mme。 de Pompadour thirty…six millions of livres； which is at least
seventy…two millions nowadays＇40＇ According to d'Argenson；＇41＇ in
1751； he has 4；000 horses in his stable； and we are assured that his
household alone； or his person； 〃cost this year 68；000；000；〃 almost a
quarter of the public revenue。 Why be astonished if we look upon the
sovereign in the manner of the day； that is to say； as a lord of the
manor enjoying of his hereditary property？ He constructs； he
entertains； he gives festivals； he hunts； and he spends money
according to his station。 Moreover； being the master of his own funds；
he gives to whomsoever he pleases； and all his selections are favors。
Abbé de Vermond writes to Empress Maria Theresa＇42＇
〃Your Majesty knows better than myself； that； according to
immemorial custom； three…fourths of the places honors and pensions are
awarded not on account of services but out of favor and through
influence。 This favor was originally prompted by birth； alliance and
fortune； the fact is that it nearly always is based on patronage and
intrigue。 This procedure is so well established； that is respected as
a sort of justice even by those who suffer the most from it。 A man of
worth not able to dazzle by his court alliances； nor through a
brilliant expenditure； would not dare to demand a regiment； however
ancient and illustrious his services； or his birth。 Twenty years ago；
the sons of dukes and ministers； of people attached to the court； of
the relations and protégés of mistresses； became colonels at the age
of sixteen。 M。 de Choiseul caused loud complaints on extending this
age to twenty…three years。 But to compensate favoritism and absolutism
he assigned to the pure grace of the king； or rather to that of his
ministers； the appointment to the grades of lieutenant…colonel and
major which； until that time； belonged of right to priority of
services in the government； also the commands of provinces and of
towns。 You are aware that these places have been largely multiplied；
and that they are bestowed through favor and credit； like the
regiments。 The cordon bleu and the cordon rouge are in the like
position； and abbeys are still more constantly subject to the régime
of influence。 As to positions in the finances； I dare not allude to
them。 Appointments in the judiciary are the most conditioned by
services rendered； and yet how much do not influence and
recommendation affect the nomination of intendants； first presidents〃
and the others？
Necker； entering on his duties； finds twenty…eight millions in
pensions paid from the royal treasury； and； at his fall； there is an
outflow of money showered by millions on the people of the court。 Even
during his term of office the king allows himself to make the fortunes
of his wife's friends of both sexes； the Countess de Polignac obtains
400；000 francs to pay her debts； 100；000 francs dowry for her
daughter； and； besides； for herself； the promise of an estate of
35；000 livres income； and； for her lover； the Count de Vaudreil； a
pension of 30；000 livres； the Princess de Lamballe obtains 100；000
crowns per annum； as much for the post of superintendent of the
queen's household； which is revived on her behalf； as for a position
for her brother。＇43＇ The king is reproached for his parsimony； why
should he be sparing of his purse？ Started on a course not his own； he
gives； buys； builds； and exchanges； he assists those belonging to his
own society； doing everything in a style becoming to a grand seignior；
that is to say； throwing money away by handfuls。One instance enables
us to judge of this： in order to assist the bankrupt Guéménée family；
he purchases of them three estates for about 12；500；000 livres； which
they had just purchased for 4；000；000； moreover； in exchange for two
domains in Brittany； which produce 33；758 livres income； he makes over
to them the principality of Dombes which produces nearly 70；000 livres
income。＇44＇ … When we come to read the Red Book further on we shall
find 700；000 livres of pensions for the Polignac family； most of them
revertible from one member to another； and nearly 2；000；000 of annual
benefits to the Noailles family。 … The king has forgotten that his
favors are mortal blows； 〃the courtier who obtains 6；000 livres
pension； receiving the taille of six villages。〃＇45＇ Each largess of
the monarch； considering the state of the taxes； is based on the
privation of the peasants； the sovereign； through his clerks； taking
bread from the poor to give coaches to the rich。 … The center of the
government； in short； is the center of the evil； all the wrongs and
all the miseries start from it as from the center of pain and
inflammation； here it is that the public abscess comes to the head；
and here will it break。＇46＇
VI。 Latent Disorganization in France。
Such is the just and fatal effect of privileges turned to selfish
purposes instead of being exercised for the advantage of others。 To
him who utters the word； 〃Sire or Seignior〃 stands for the protector
who feeds； the ancient who leads。〃＇47＇ With such a title and for this
purpose too much cannot be granted to him； for there is no more
difficult or more exalted post。 But he must fulfill its duties；
otherwise in the day of peril he will be left to himself。 Already； and
long before the day arrives； his flock is no longer his own； if it
marches onward it is through routine； it is simply a multitude of
persons； but no longer an organized body。 Whilst in Germany and in
England the feudal régime； retained or transformed； still composes a
living society； in France＇48＇ its mechanical framework encloses only
so many human particles。 We still find the materi