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feudal and rural instincts； the old man at once judges both the
government and the philosophers； the Ancient Regime and the
Revolution。
IV。 THE PEASANT BECOMES LANDOWNER。
How the peasant becomes a proprietor。 … He is no better off。 …
Increase of taxes。 … He is the 〃mule〃 of the Ancient Regime。
Misery begets bitterness in a man； but ownership coupled with
misery renders him still more bitter。 He may have submitted to
indigence but not to spoliation … which is the situation of the
peasant in 1789； for； during the eighteenth century； he had become the
possessor of land。 But how could he maintain himself in such
destitution？ The fact is almost incredible； but it is nevertheless
true。 We can only explain it by the character of the French peasant；
by his sobriety； his tenacity； his rigor with himself； his
dissimulation； his hereditary passion for property and especially for
that of the soil。 He had lived on privations； and economized sou after
sou。 Every year a few pieces of silver are added to his little store
of crowns buried in the most secret recess of his cellar； Rousseau's
peasant； concealing his wine and bread in a pit； assuredly had a yet
more secret hiding…place； a little money in a woollen stocking or in a
jug escapes； more readily than elsewhere； the search of the clerks。
Dressed in rags； going barefoot； eating nothing but coarse black
bread； but cherishing the little treasure in his breast on which he
builds so many hopes； he watches for the opportunity which never fails
to come。 〃In spite of privileges；〃 writes a gentleman in 1755；＇46＇
〃the nobles are daily being ruined and reduced； the Third…Estate
making all the fortunes。〃 A number of domains； through forced or
voluntary sales； thus pass into the hands of financiers； of men of the
quill； of merchants； and of the well…to…do bourgeois。 Before
undergoing this total dispossession； however； the seignior； involved
in debt； is evidently resigned to partial alienation of his property。
The peasant who has bribed the steward is at hand with his hoard。 〃It
is poor property； my lord； and it costs you more than you get from
it。〃 This may refer to an isolated patch； one end of a field or
meadow； sometimes a farm whose farmer pays nothing； and generally
worked by a métayer whose wants and indolence make him an annual
expense to his master。 The latter may say to himself that the
alienated parcel is not lost； since； some day or other； through his
right of repurchase； he may take it back； while； in the meantime； he
enjoys a cens； drawbacks； and the lord's dues。 Moreover； there is on
his domain and around him； extensive open spaces which the decline of
cultivation and depopulation have left a desert。 To restore the value
of this he must surrender its proprietorship。 There is no other way by
which to attach man permanently to the soil。 And the government helps
him along in this matter。 Obtaining no revenue from the abandoned
soil； it assents to a provisional withdrawal of its too weighty hand。
By the edict of 1766； a piece of cleared waste land remains free of
the taille for fifteen years； and； thereupon； in twenty…eight
provinces 400；000 arpents are cleared in three years＇47＇。
This is the mode by which the seigniorial domain gradually crumbles
away and decreases。 Towards the last； in many places； with the
exception of the chateau and the small adjoining farm which brings in
2 or 3000 francs a year； nothing is left to the seignior but his
feudal dues；＇48＇ the rest of the soil belongs to the peasantry。
Forbonnais already remarks； towards 1750； that many of the nobles and
of the ennobled 〃reduced to extreme poverty but with titles to immense
possessions；〃 have sold off portions to small cultivators at low
prices； and often for the amount of the taille。 Towards 1760； one…
quarter of the soil is said to have already passed into the hands of
farmers。 In 1772； in relation to the vingtième； which is levied on the
net revenue of real property； the intendant of Caen； having completed
the statement of his quota； estimates that out of 150；000 〃there are
perhaps 50；000 whose liabilities did not exceed five sous； and perhaps
still as many more not exceeding twenty sous。〃＇49＇ Contemporary
observers authenticate this passion of the peasant for land。 〃The
savings of the lower classes； which elsewhere are invested with
individuals and in the public funds； are wholly destined in France to
the purchase of land。〃 〃Accordingly the number of small rural holdings
is always on the increase。 Necker says that there is an immensity of
them。〃 Arthur Young； in 1789； is astonished at their great number and
〃inclines to think that they form a third of the kingdom。〃 This
already would be our actual estimate； and we still find；
approximately； the actual figures； on estimating the number of
proprietors in comparison with the number of inhabitants。
The small cultivator； however； in becoming a possessor of the soil
assumed its charges。 Simply as day…laborer； and with his arms alone；
he was only partially affected by the taxes； 〃where there is nothing
the king loses his dues。〃 But now； vainly is he poor and declaring
himself still poorer； the fisc has a hold on him and on every portion
of his new possessions。 The collectors； peasants like himself； and
jealous； by virtue of being his neighbors； know how much his property；
exposed to view； brings in； hence they take all they can lay their
hands on。 Vainly has he labored with renewed energy； his hands remain
as empty； and； at the end of the year； he discovers that his field has
produced him nothing。 The more he acquires and produces the more
burdensome do the taxes become。 In 1715； the taille and the poll…tax；
which he alone pays； or nearly alone； amounts to sixty…six millions of
livres； the amount is ninety…three millions in 1759 and one hundred
and ten millions in 1789。＇50＇ In 1757； the charges amount to
283；156；000 livres； in 1789 to 476；294；000 livres。
Theoretically； through humanity and through good sense； there is；
doubtless； a desire to relieve the peasant； and pity is felt for him。
But； in practice； through necessity and routine； he is treated
according to Cardinal Richelieu's precept； as a beast of burden to
which oats is sparingly rationed out for fear that he may become too
strong and kick； 〃a mule which； accustomed to his load； is spoiled
more by long repose than by work。〃。。。。
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Notes：
＇1＇ Labruyère； edition of Destailleurs； II； 97。 Addition to the
fourth ed。 （1689）
＇2＇ Oppression and misery begin about 1672。 … At the end of the
seventeenth century （l698）； the reports made up by the intendants for
the Duc de Bourgogne； state that many of the districts and provinces
have lost one…sixth； one…fifth； one…quarter； the third and even the
half of their population。 （See details in the 〃correspondance des
contr？leurs