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the origins of contemporary france-1-第132章

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to; and during; the Revolution。  I find; in manuscript correspondence;

the syndics and mayors of villages estimating the quantities for local

subsistence at so many bushels in the granaries; so many sheaves in

the barns; so many mouths to be filled; so many days to wait until



the August wheat comes in; and concluding on short supplies for

two; three and four months。  Such a state of inter…communication and of

agriculture condemns a country to periodical famines; and I venture to

state that; alongside of the small…pox which out of eight deaths

causes one; another endemic disease exists; as prevalent and as

destructive; and this disease is starvation。



We can easily imagine that it is the common people; and especially

the peasants who suffers。  An increase of the price of bread prevents

him from getting any; and even without that increase; he obtains it

with difficulty。  Wheat bread cost; as today; three sous per pound;'32'

but as the average day's work brought only nineteen sous instead of

forty; the day…laborer; working the same time; could buy only the half

of a loaf instead of a full loaf'33'。  Taking everything into account;

and wages being estimated according to the price of grain; we find

that the husbandman's manual labor then procured him 959 litres of

wheat; while nowadays it gives him 1;851 litres; his well…being;

accordingly; has advanced ninety…three per cent。; which suffices to

show to what extent his predecessors suffered privations。  And these

privations are peculiar to France。  Through analogous observations and

estimates Arthur Young shows that in France those who lived on field

labor; and they constituted the great majority; are seventy…six per

cent。  less comfortable than the same laborers in England; while they

are seventy…six per cent。  less well fed and well clothed; besides

being worse treated in sickness and in health。  The result is that in

seven…eighths of the kingdom; there are no farmers; but simply

métayers (a kind of poor tenants)'34'。  The peasant is too poor to

undertake cultivation on his own account; possessing no agricultural

capital'35'。  〃The proprietor; desirous of improving his land; finds no

one to cultivate it but miserable creatures possessing only a pair of

hands; he is obliged to advance everything for its cultivation at his

own expense; animals; implements and seed; and even to advance the

wherewithal to this tenant to feed him until the first crop comes in。〃

…  〃At Vatan; for example; in Berry; the tenants; almost every year;

borrow bread of the proprietor in order to await the harvesting。〃  …

〃Very rarely is one found who is not indebted to his master at least

one hundred livres a year。〃



Frequently the latter proposes to abandon the entire crop to them

on condition that they demand nothing of him during the year; 〃these

miserable creatures〃 have refused; left to themselves; they would not

be sure of keeping themselves alive。  …  In Limousin and in Angoumois

their poverty is so great'36' 〃that; deducting the taxes to which they

are subject; they have no more than from twenty…five to thirty livres

each person per annum to spend; and not in money; it must be stated;

but counting whatever they consume in kind out of the crops they

produce。  Frequently they have less; and when they cannot possibly make

a living the master is obliged to support them。  。  。  。  The métayer is

always reduced to just what is absolutely necessary to keep him from

starving。〃 As to the small proprietor; the villager who plows his land

himself; his condition is but little better。  〃Agriculture;'37' as our

peasants practice it; is a veritable drudgery; they die by thousands

in childhood; and in maturity they seek places everywhere but where

they should be。〃



 In 1783; throughout the plain of the Toulousain they eat only

maize; a mixture of flour; common seeds and very little wheat; those

on the mountains feed; a part of the year; on chestnuts; the potato is

hardly known; and; according to Arthur Young; ninety…nine out of a

hundred peasants would refuse to eat it。  According to the reports of

intendants; the basis of food; in Normandy; is oats; in the election…

district of Troyes; buck…wheat; in the Marche and in Limousin;

buckwheat with chestnuts and radishes; in Auvergne; buckwheat;

chestnuts; milk…curds and a little salted goat's meat; in Beauce; a

mixture of barley and rye; in Berry; a mixture of barley and oats。

There is no wheat bread; the peasant consumes inferior flour only

because he is unable to pay two sous a pound for his bread。  There is

no butcher's meat; at best he kills one pig a year。  His dwelling is

built of clay (pise); roofed with thatch; without windows; and the

floor is the beaten ground。  Even when the soil furnishes good building

materials; stone; slate and tile; the windows have no sashes。  In a

parish in Normandy;'38' in 1789; 〃most of the dwellings consist of

four posts。〃 They are often mere stables or barns 〃to which a chimney

has been added made of four poles and some mud。〃 Their clothes are

rags; and often in winter these are muslin rags。  In Quercy and

elsewhere; they have no stockings; or wooden shoes。  〃It is not in the

power of an English imagination;〃 says Arthur Young; 〃to imagine the

animals that waited on us here at the Chapeau Rouge;  …  creatures

that were called by courtesy Souillac women; but in reality walking

dung…hills。  But a neatly dressed; clean waiting…girl at an inn; will

be looked for in vain in France。〃 On reading descriptions made on the

spot we see in France a similar aspect of country and of peasantry as

in Ireland; at least in its broad outlines。







III。  THE COUNTRYSIDE。



Aspects of the country and of the peasantry。



In the most fertile regions; for instance; in Limagne; both

cottages and faces denote 〃misery and privation。〃'39' 〃The peasants

are generally feeble; emaciated and of slight stature。〃 Nearly all

derive wheat and wine from their homesteads; but they are forced to

sell this to pay their rents and taxes; they eat black bread; made of

rye and barley; and their sole beverage is water poured on the lees

and the husks。  〃An Englishman'40' who has not traveled can not imagine

the figure made by infinitely the greater part of the countrywomen in

France。〃 Arthur Young; who stops to talk with one of these in

Champagne; says that 〃this woman; at no great distance; might have

been taken for sixty or seventy; her figure was so bent and her face

so hardened and furrowed by labor;  …  but she said she was only

twenty…eight。〃 This woman; her husband and her household; afford a

sufficiently accurate example of the condition of the small

proprietary husbandmen。  Their property consists simply of a patch of

ground; with a cow and a poor little horse; their seven children

consume the whole of the cow's milk。  They owe to one seignior a

franchard (forty…two pounds) of flour; and three chickens; to another

three franchards of oats;
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