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a mathematician； rejects the ignorant； it is discovered that capacity
is wanting among the noble pupils and nobility among the capable
pupils；＇22＇ the two qualities of gentility and intelligence seeming to
exclude each other； as there are but four or five out of a hundred
pupils who combine the two conditions。 Now； as society at this time
is mixed； such tests are frequent and easy。 Whether lawyer；
physician； or man of letters； a member of the Third…Estate with whom a
duke converses familiarly； who sits in a diligence alongside of a
count…colonel of hussars；＇23＇ can appreciate his companion or his
interlocutor； weigh his ideas； test his merit and esteem him at his
correct value； and I am sure that he does not overrate him。
Now that the nobles have lost their special capacities and the Third…
Estate have acquired general competence； and as they are on the same
level in education and competence； the inequality which separates them
has become offensive because it has become useless。 Nobility being
instituted by custom is no longer sanctified by conscience； the Third…
Estate being justly excited against privileges that have no
justification； whether in the capacity of the noble or in the
incapacity of the bourgeois。
IV。 ROUSSEAU'S PHILOSOPHY SPREADS AND TAKES HOLD。
Philosophy in the minds thus fitted for it。 … That of Rousseau
prominent。 … This philosophy in harmony with new necessities。 … It
is adopted by the Third…Estate 。
Distrust and anger against a government putting all fortunes
at risk； rancor and hostility against a nobility barring all roads to
popular advancement； are； then； the sentiments developing themselves
among the middle class solely due to their advance in wealth and
culture。 We can imagine the effect of the new philosophy upon
people with such attitudes。 At first； confined to the aristocratic
reservoir； the doctrine filters out through numerous cracks like so
many trickling streams； to scatter imperceptibly among the lower
class。 Already； in 1727； Barbier； a bourgeois of the old school and
having little knowledge of philosophy and philosophers except the
name； writes in his journal：
〃A hundred poor families are deprived of the annuities on which
they supported themselves； acquired with bonds for which the capital
is obliterated； 56；000 livres are given in pensions to people who have
held the best offices； where they have amassed considerable property；
always at the expense of the people； and all this merely that they may
rest themselves and do nothing。〃＇24＇
One by one； reformative ideas penetrate to his office of
consulting advocate； conversation has sufficed to propagate them；
homely common sense needing no philosophy to secure their recognition。
〃The tax on property；〃 said he； in 1750； 〃should be proportioned
and equally distributed among all the king's subjects and the members
of the government； in proportion to the property each really possesses
in the kingdom； in England； the lands of the nobility； the clergy and
the Third…Estate pay alike without distinction； and nothing is more
just。〃
In the six years which follow the flood increases。 People
denounce the government in the cafés； on their promenades； while the
police dare not arrest malcontents 〃because they would have to arrest
everybody。〃 The disaffection goes on increasing up to the end of the
reign。 In 1744； says the bookseller Hardy； during the king's illness
at Metz； private individuals cause six thousand masses to be said for
his recovery and pay for them at the sacristy of Notre Dame； in 1757；
after Damiens's attempt on the king's life； the number of masses
demanded is only six hundred； in 1774； during the malady which carries
him off； the number falls down to three。 The complete discredit of
the government； the immense success of Rousseau； these two events；
occurring simultaneously； afford a date for the conversion of the
Third…Estate to philosophy＇25＇。 A traveler； at the beginning of the
reign of Louis XVI； who returns home after some years' absence； on
being asked what change he noticed in the nation； replied； 〃Nothing；
except that what used to be talked about in the drawing…rooms is
repeated in the streets。〃＇26＇ And that which is repeated in the
streets is Rousseau's doctrine； the Discourse on Inequality； the
Social Contract amplified； popularized and repeated by adherents in
every possible way and in all their forms。 What could be more
fascinating for the man of the Third…Estate？ Not only is this theory
in vogue； and encountered by him at the decisive moment when； for the
first time； he turns his attention to general principles； but again it
provides him with arms against social inequality and political
absolutism； and much sharper than he needs。 To people disposed to put
restraints on power and to abolish privileges； what guide is more
sympathetic than the writer of genius； the powerful logician； the
impassioned orator； who establishes natural law； who repudiates
historic law； who proclaims the equality of men； who contends for the
sovereignty of the people； who denounces on every page the usurpation；
the vices； the worthlessness； the malefactions of the great and of
kings！ And I omit the points by which he makes acceptable to a rigid
and laborious bourgeoisie； to the new men that are working and
advancing themselves； his steady earnestness； his harsh and bitter
tone； his eulogy of simple habits； of domestic virtues； of personal
merit； of virile energy； the commoner addressing commoners。 It is not
surprising that they should accept him as a guide and welcome his
doctrines with that fervor of faith called enthusiasm； and which
invariably accompanies the newborn idea as well as the first love。
A competent judge； and an eye…witness； Mallet du Pan；＇27＇ writes
in 1799：
〃Rousseau had a hundred times more readers among the middle and
lower classes than Voltaire。 He alone inoculated the French with the
doctrine of the sovereignty of the people and with its extremist
consequences。 It would be difficult to cite a single revolutionary
who was not transported over these anarchical theories； and who did
not burn with ardor to realize them。 That Contrat Social； the
disintegrator of societies； was the Koran of the pretentious talkers
of 1789； of the Jacobins of 1790； of the republicans of 1791； and of
the most atrocious of the madmen。 。 。 。 I heard Marat in 1788 read
and comment on the Contrat Social in the public streets to the
applause of an enthusiastic auditory。〃
The same year； in an immense throng filling the great hall of
the Palais de Justice； Lacretelle hears that same book quoted； its
dogmas put forward by the clerks of la Bazoche； 〃by members of the
bar；＇28＇ by young lawyers； by the ordinary lettered classes swarming
with new…fledged specialist in public law。〃 Hundreds of details show
us that it is in every hand like a catechis