the man versus the state-第35章

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ong　with　that　militant　activity　which；　both　by　the　taking　of　slaves　and　the　establishment　of　ranks；　produces　status；　and　the　recognition　of　rights　begins　again　to　get　definiteness　only　as　fast　as　militancy　ceases　to　be　chronic　and　governmental　power　declines。　

When　we　turn　from　the　life　of　the　individual　to　the　life　of　the　society；　the　same　lesson　is　taught　us。　　　　　　Though　mere　love　of　companionship　prompts　primitive　men　to　live　in　groups；　yet　the　chief　prompter　is　experience　of　the　advantages　to　be　derived　from　co…operation。　On　what　condition　only　can　co…operation　arise？　Evidently　on　condition　that　those　who　join　their　efforts　severally　gain　by　doing　so。　If；　as　in　the　simplest　cases；　they　unite　to　achieve　something　which　each　by　himself　cannot　achieve；　or　can　achieve　less　readily；　it　must　be　on　the　tacit　understanding；　either　that　they　shall　share　the　benefit　（as　when　game　is　caught　by　a　party　of　them）　or　that　if　one　reaps　all　the　benefit　now　（as　in　building　a　hut　or　clearing　a　plot）　the　others　shall　severally　reap　equivalent　benefits　in　their　turns。　When；　instead　of　efforts　joined　in　doing　the　same　thing；　different　things　are　effected　by　them　　when　division　of　labour　arises；　with　accompanying　barter　of　products；　the　arrangement　implies　that　each；　in　return　for　something　which　he　has　in　superfluous　quantity；　gets　an　approximate　equivalent　of　something　which　he　wants。　If　he　hands　over　the　one　and　does　not　get　the　other；　future　proposals　to　exchange　will　meet　with　no　response。　There　will　be　a　reversion　to　that　rudest　condition　in　which　each　makes　everything　for　himself。　Hence　the　possibility　of　co…operation　depends　on　fulfilment　of　contract；　tacit　or　overt。　　　　　　Now　this　which　we　see　must　hold　of　the　very　first　step　towards　that　industrial　organization　by　which　the　life　of　a　society　is　maintained；　must　hold　more　or　less　fully　throughout　its　development。　Though　the　militant　type　of　organization；　with　its　system　of　status　produced　by　chronic　war；　greatly　obscures　these　relations　of　contract；　yet　they　remain　partially　in　force。　They　still　hold　between　freemen；　and　between　the　heads　of　those　small　groups　which　form　the　units　of　early　societies；　and；　in　a　measure；　they　still　hold　within　these　small　groups　themselves；　since　survival　of　them　as　groups；　implies　such　recognition　of　the　claims　of　their　members；　even　when　slaves；　that　in　return　for　their　labours　they　get　sufficiencies　of　food；　clothing；　and　protection。　And　when；　with　diminution　of　warfare　and　growth　of　trade；　voluntary　co…operation　more　and　more　replaces　compulsory　co…operation；　and　the　carrying　on　of　social　life　by　exchange　under　agreement；　partially　suspended　for　a　time；　gradually　re…establishes　itself；　its　re…establishment　makes　possible　that　vast　elaborate　industrial　organization　by　which　a　great　nation　is　sustained。　　　　　　For　in　proportion　as　contracts　are　unhindered　and　the　performance　of　them　certain；　the　growth　is　great　and　the　social　life　active。　It　is　not　now　by　one　or　other　of　two　individuals　who　contract；　that　the　evil　effects　of　breach　of　contract　are　experienced。　In　an　advanced　society；　they　are　experienced　by　entire　classes　of　producers　and　distributors；　which　have　arisen　through　division　of　labour；　and；　eventually；　they　are　experienced　by　everybody。　Ask　on　what　condition　it　is　that　Birmingham　devotes　itself　to　manufacturing　hardware；　or　part　of　Staffordshire　to　making　pottery；　or　Lancashire　to　weaving　cotton。　Ask　how　the　rural　people　who　here　grow　wheat　and　there　pasture　cattle；　find　it　possible　to　occupy　themselves　in　their　special　businesses。　These　groups　can　severally　thus　act　only　if　each　gets　from　the　others　in　exchange　for　its　own　surplus　product；　due　shares　of　their　surplus　products。　No　longer　directly　effected　by　barter；　this　obtainment　of　their　respective　shares　of　one　another's　products　is　indirectly　effected　by　money；　and　if　we　ask　how　each　division　of　producers　gets　its　due　amount　of　the　required　money；　the　answer　is　　by　fulfilment　of　contract。　If　Leeds　makes　woollens　and　does　not；　by　fulfilment　of　contract；　receive　the　means　of　obtaining　from　agricultural　districts　the　needful　quantity　of　food；　it　must　starve；　and　stop　producing　woollens。　If　South　Wales　smelts　iron　and　there　comes　no　equivalent　agreed　upon；　enabling　it　to　get　fabrics　for　clothing；　its　industry　must　cease。　And　so　throughout；　in　general　and　in　detail。　That　mutual　dependence　of　parts　which　we　see　in　social　organization；　as　in　individual　organization；　is　possible　only　on　condition　that　while　each　part　does　the　particular　kind　of　work　it　has　become　adjusted　to；　it　receives　its　proportion　of　those　materials　required　for　repair　and　growth；　which　all　the　other　parts　have　joined　to　produce：　such　proportion　being　settled　by　bargaining。　Moreover；　it　is　by　fulfilment　of　contract　that　there　is　effected　a　balancing　of　all　the　various　products　to　the　various　needs　　the　large　manufacture　of　knives　and　the　small　manufacture　of　lancets；　the　great　growth　of　wheat　and　the　little　growth　of　mustard…seed。　The　check　on　undue　production　of　each　commodity；　results　from　finding　that　after　a　certain　quantity；　no　one　will　agree　to　take　any　further　quantity　on　terms　that　yield　an　adequate　money　equivalent。　And　so　there　is　prevented　a　useless　expenditure　of　labour　in　producing　that　which　society　does　not　want。　　　　　　Lastly；　we　have　to　note　the　still　more　significant　fact　that　the　condition　under　which　only　any　specialized　group　of　workers　can　grow　when　the　community　needs　more　of　its　particular　kind　of　work；　is　that　contracts　shall　be　free　and　fulfilment　of　them　enforced。　If　when；　from　lack　of　material；　Lancashire　failed　to　supply　the　usual　quantity　of　cotton…goods；　there　had　been　such　interference　with　contracts　as　prevented　Yorkshire　from　asking　a　greater　price　for　its　woollens；　which　it　was　enabled　to　do　by　the　greater　demand　for　them；　there　would　have　been　no　temptation　to　put　more　capital　into　the　woollen　manufacture；　no　increase　in　the　amount　of　machinery　and　number　of　artizans　employed；　and　no　increase　of　woollens：　the　consequence　being　that　the　whole　community　would　have　suffered　from　not　having　deficient　cottons　replaced　by　extra　woollens。　What　serious　injury　may　result　to　a　nation　if　its　members　are　hindered　from　contracting　with　one　another；　was　well　shown　in　the　contrast　between　England　and　France　in　respect　of　railways。　Here；　though　obstacles　were　at　first　raised　by　classes　predominant　in　the　legislature；　the　obstacles　were　not　such　as　prevented　capitalists　from　investing；　engineers　from　furnishing　directive　skill；　or　contractors　from　undertaking　works；　and　the　high　interest　originally　obtained　on　investments；　the　great　profits　made　by　contractors；　and　the　large　payments　received　by　engineers；　led　to　that　drafting　of　money；　energy；　and　ability；　into　railway…making；　which　rapidly　developed　our　railway…system；　to　the　enormous　increase　of　our　national　prosperity。　But　when　M。　Thiers；　then　Minister　of　Public　Works；　came　over　to　inspect；　and　having　been　taken　about　by　Mr　Vignoles；　said　to　him　when　leaving：　〃I　do　not　think　railways　are　suited　to　France；〃（31*）　there　resulted；　from　the　consequent　policy　of　hindering　free　contract；　a　delay　of　〃eight　or　ten　years〃　in　that　material　progress　which　France　exper