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6。 Fortnightly Review； January； 1884。
7。 Russia； I。 422。
8。 Socialism made Plain； Review； 185； Fleet Street。
9。 If any one thinks such fears are groundless； let him contemplate the fact that from 1867…8 to 1880…1； our annual local expenditure for the United Kingdom has grown from *36；132；834 to *63；276；283； and that during the same 13 years； the municipal expenditure in England and Wales alone； has grown from 13 millions to 30 millions a year！ How the increase of public burdens will join with othe causes in bringing about public ownership； is shown by a statement made by Mr W。 Rathbone； M。P。； to which any attention has been drawn since the above paragraph was in type。 He says； 〃within my own experience； local taxation in New York has risen from 12s 6d per cent to *2 12s 6d per cent on the capital of its citizens a charge which would more than absorb the whole income of an average English landlord。〃 Nineteenth Century； February； 1883。
10。 Fortnightly Review； November； 1883； pp。 619…20。
11。 Lactant。 De M。 Persecut； cc。 7； 23。
12。 Taine； L'Ancien Regime； pp。 337…8 （in the English translation）。
13。 Report of Commissioners for Inquiry into the Admistration and Practical Operation of the Poor Laws； p。 37。 February 20； 1834。
THE SINS OF LEGISLATORS
Be it or be it not true that Man is shapen in iniquity and conceived in sin； it is unquestionably true that Government is begotten of aggression and by aggression。 In small undeveloped societies where for ages complete peace has continued； there exists nothing like what we call Government： no coercive agency； but mere honorary headship； if any headship at all。 In these exceptional communities； unaggressive and from special causes unaggressed upon； there is so little deviation from the virtues of truthfulness； honesty； justice； and generosity； that nothing beyond an occasional expression of public opinion by informally…assembled elders is needful。（1*） Conversely； we find proofs that； at first recognized but temporarily during leadership in war； the authority of a chief is permanently established by continuity of war； and grows strong where successful aggression ends in subjection of neighbouring tribes。 And thence onwards； examples furnished by all races put beyond doubt the truth； that the coercive power of the chief； developing into king； and king of kings （a frequent title in the ancient East）； becomes great in proportion as conquest becomes habitual and the union of subdued nations extensive。（2*） Comparisons disclose a further truth which should be ever present to us the truth that the aggressiveness of the ruling power inside a society increases with its aggressiveness outside the society。 As； to make an efficient army； the soldiers in their several grades must be subordinate to the commander； so； to make an efficient fighting community； must the citizens be subordinate to the ruling power。 They must furnish recruits to the extent demanded； and yield up whatever property is required。 An obvious implication is that the ethics of Government； originally identical with the ethics of war； must long remain akin to them； and can diverge from them only as warlike activities and preparations become less。 Current evidence shows this。 At present on the Continent； the citizen is free only when his services as a soldier are not demanded； and during the rest of his life he is largely enslaved in supporting the military organization。 Even among ourselves； a serious war would； by the necessitated conscription； suspend the liberties of large numbers and trench on the liberties of the rest； by taking from them through taxes whatever supplies were needed that is； forcing them to labour so many days more for the State。 Inevitably the established code of conduct in the dealings of Governments with citizens； must be allied to their code of conduct in their dealings with one another。 I am not； under the title of this article； about to treat of the trespasses and the revenges for trespasses； accounts of which constitute the great mass of history； nor to trace the internal inequities which have ever accompanied the eternal inequities。 I do not propose here to catalogue the crimes of irresponsible legislators； beginning with that of King Khufu； the stones of whose vast tomb were laid in the bloody sweat of tens of thousands of slaves toiling through long years under the lash； going on to those committed by conquerors； Egyptian； Assyrian； Persian； Macedonian； Roman； and the rest； and ending with those of Napoleon； whose ambition to set his foot on the neck of the civilized world； cost not less than two million lives。（3*） Nor do I propose here to enumerate those sins of responsible legislators seen in the long list of laws made in the interests of dominant classes a list coming down in our own country to those under which there were long maintained slavery and the slave…trade； torturing nearly 40；000 negroes annually by close packing during a tropical voyage； and killing a large percentage of them； and ending with that of the corn…laws； by which； says Sir Erskine May； 〃to ensure high rents； it had been decreed that multitudes should hunger。〃（4*） Not； indeed； that a presentation of the conspicuous misdeeds of legislators； responsible and irresponsible； would be useless。 It would have several uses one of them relevant to the truth above pointed out。 Such a presentation would make clear how that identity of governmental ethics with military ethics which necessarily exists during primitive times； when the army is simply the mobilized society and the society is the quiescent army； continues through long stages； and even now affects in great degrees our law…proceedings and our daily lives。 Having； for instance； shown that in numerous savage tribes the judicial function of the chief does not exist； or is nominal； and that very generally during early stages of European civilization； each man had to defend himself and rectify his private wrongs as best he might having shown that in medieval times the right of private war among members of the military order was brought to an end； not because the head ruler thought it his duty to arbitrate； but because private wars interfered with the efficiency of his army in public wars having shown that the administration of justice displayed through subsequent ages a large amount of its primitive nature； in trial by battle carried on before the king or his deputy as umpire； and which； among ourselves； continued nominally to be an alternative form of trial down to 1819； it might then be pointed out that even now there survives trial by battle under another form： counsel being the champions and purses the weapons。 In civil cases； the ruling agency cares scarcely more than of old about rectifying the wrongs of the injured； but； practically； its deputy does little else than to enforce the rules of the fight： the result being less a question of equity than a question of pecuniary ability and forensic skill。 Nay； so little concern for the administration of justice is shown by the ruling agency； that when； by legal conflict carried on in the presence of its deputy； the combatants have been pecuniarily bled even to the extent of produci