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n over it in other countries； and it appears in every possible form according to the exigency of the occasion。 Sometimes the laws are made by the people in a body； as at Athens； and sometimes its representatives； chosen by universal suffrage； transact business in its name； and almost under its immediate control。
In some countries a power exists which； though it is in a degree foreign to the social body； directs it； and forces it to pursue a certain track。 In others the ruling force is divided； being partly within and partly without the ranks of the people。 But nothing of the kind is to be seen in the United States； there society governs itself for itself。 All power centres in its bosom； and scarcely an individual is to be meet with who would venture to conceive； or； still less； to express； the idea of seeking it elsewhere。 The nation participates in the making of its laws by the choice of its legislators； and in the execution of them by the choice of the agents of the executive government； it may almost be said to govern itself； so feeble and so restricted is the share left to the administration； so little do the authorities forget their popular origin and the power from which they emanate。 *a ＇Footnote a： See Appendix； H。＇
Chapter V： Necessity Of Examining The Condition Of The States … Part I
Necessity Of Examining The Condition Of The States Before That Of The Union At Large
It is proposed to examine in the following chapter what is the form of government established in America on the principle of the sovereignty of the people； what are its resources； its hindrances； its advantages； and its dangers。 The first difficulty which presents itself arises from the complex nature of the constitution of the United States； which consists of two distinct social structures； connected and； as it were； encased one within the other； two governments； completely separate and almost independent； the one fulfilling the ordinary duties and responding to the daily and indefinite calls of a community； the other circumscribed within certain limits； and only exercising an exceptional authority over the general interests of the country。 In short； there are twenty… four small sovereign nations； whose agglomeration constitutes the body of the Union。 To examine the Union before we have studied the States would be to adopt a method filled with obstacles。 The form of the Federal Government of the United States was the last which was adopted； and it is in fact nothing more than a modification or a summary of those republican principles which were current in the whole community before it existed； and independently of its existence。 Moreover； the Federal Government is； as I have just observed； the exception； the Government of the States is the rule。 The author who should attempt to exhibit the picture as a whole before he had explained its details would necessarily fall into obscurity and repetition。
The great political principles which govern American society at this day undoubtedly took their origin and their growth in the State。 It is therefore necessary to become acquainted with the State in order to possess a clue to the remainder。 The States which at present compose the American Union all present the same features； as far as regards the external aspect of their institutions。 Their political or administrative existence is centred in three focuses of action； which may not inaptly be compared to the different nervous centres which convey motion to the human body。 The township is the lowest in order； then the county； and lastly the State； and I propose to devote the following chapter to the examination of these three divisions。
The American System Of Townships And Municipal Bodies
Why the Author begins the examination of the political institutions with the township … Its existence in all nations … Difficulty of establishing and preserving municipal independence … Its importance … Why the Author has selected the township system of New England as the main topic of his discussion。
It is not undesignedly that I begin this subject with the Township。 The village or township is the only association which is so perfectly natural that wherever a number of men are collected it seems to constitute itself。
The town； or tithing； as the smallest division of a community； must necessarily exist in all nations； whatever their laws and customs may be： if man makes monarchies and establishes republics； the first association of mankind seems constituted by the hand of God。 But although the existence of the township is coeval with that of man； its liberties are not the less rarely respected and easily destroyed。 A nation is always able to establish great political assemblies； because it habitually contains a certain number of individuals fitted by their talents； if not by their habits； for the direction of affairs。 The township is； on the contrary； composed of coarser materials； which are less easily fashioned by the legislator。 The difficulties which attend the consolidation of its independence rather augment than diminish with the increasing enlightenment of the people。 A highly civilized community spurns the attempts of a local independence； is disgusted at its numerous blunders； and is apt to despair of success before the experiment is completed。 Again； no immunities are so ill protected from the encroachments of the supreme power as those of municipal bodies in general： they are unable to struggle； single… handed； against a strong or an enterprising government； and they cannot defend their cause with success unless it be identified with the customs of the nation and supported by public opinion。 Thus until the independence of townships is amalgamated with the manners of a people it is easily destroyed； and it is only after a long existence in the laws that it can be thus amalgamated。 Municipal freedom is not the fruit of human device； it is rarely created； but it is； as it were； secretly and spontaneously engendered in the midst of a semi…barbarous state of society。 The constant action of the laws and the national habits； peculiar circumstances； and above all time； may consolidate it； but there is certainly no nation on the continent of Europe which has experienced its advantages。 Nevertheless local assemblies of citizens constitute the strength of free nations。 Town…meetings are to liberty what primary schools are to science； they bring it within the people's reach； they teach men how to use and how to enjoy it。 A nation may establish a system of free government； but without the spirit of municipal institutions it cannot have the spirit of liberty。 The transient passions and the interests of an hour； or the chance of circumstances； may have created the external forms of independence； but the despotic tendency which has been repelled will； sooner or later； inevitably reappear on the surface。
In order to explain to the reader the general principles on which the political organization of the counties and townships of the United States rests； I have thought it expedient to choose one of the States of New England as an example； to examine the mechanism of its constitution； and then to cast a general glance over the countr