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and families； that is to say with constituted powers； more or less
difficult to bring under subjection and which； to be kept in
subjection； stipulated conditions。 Hence； in France； so many different
conditions： each distinct body had yielded through one or several
distinct capitulations and possessed its own separate statute。 Hence；
again； such diversely unequal conditions： the bodies； the best able to
protect themselves； had； of course； defended themselves the best。
Their statutes； written or unwritten； guaranteed to them precious
privileges which the other bodies； much weaker； could neither acquire
nor preserve。 These were not merely immunities but likewise
prerogatives； not alone alleviations of taxation and militia
dispensations； but likewise political and administrative liberties；
remnants of their primitive sovereignty； with many other positive
advantages。 The very least being precedence； preferences； social
priority； with an incontestable right to rank； honors； offices； and
favors。 Such； notably； were the regions…states possessing their own
government （pays d'états）； compared with those which elected the
magistrates who apportioned taxation （pays d'élection）；＇1＇ the two
highest orders； the clergy and the nobles； compared with the third…
estate； and the bourgeoisie； and the town corporations compared with
the rest of the inhabitants。 On the other hand； opposed to these
historical favorites were the historical disinherited； the latter much
more numerous and counting by millions … the taxable commons； all
subjects without rank or quality； in short； the ordinary run of men；
especially the common herd of the towns and particularly of the
country； all the more ground down on account of their lower status；
along with the Jews lower yet； a sort of foreign class scarcely
tolerated； with the Calvinists； not only deprived of the humblest
rights but； again； persecuted by the State for the past one hundred
years。
All these people； who have been transported far outside of civic
relationships by historic right； are brought back； in 1789； by
philosophic right。 After the declarations of the Constituent Assembly；
there are no longer in France either Bretons； Proven？als； Burgundians
or Alsatians； Catholics； Protestants or Israelites； nobles or
plebeians； bourgeois or rurals； but simply Frenchmen；
* all with the one title of citizens；
* all endowed with the same civil； religious and political rights；
* all equal before the State；
* all introduced by law into every career； collectively； on an equal
footing and without fear or favor from anybody；
* all free to follow this out to the end without distinction of rank；
birth； faith or fortune；
* all； if they are good runners； to receive the highest prizes at the
end of the race； any office or rank； especially the leading honors and
positions which； thus far reserved to a class or coterie； had not been
allowed previously to the great multitude。
Henceforth； all Frenchmen； in theory； enjoy rights in common；
unfortunately； this is only the theory。 In reality； in all state
relationships （dans la cité）； the new…comers appropriate to themselves
the offices； the pretensions； and more than the privileges of their
predecessors； the latter； consisting of large and small land…owners；
gentlemen； parliamentarians； officials； ecclesiastics； notables of
every kind and degree； are immediately deprived of the rights of man。
Surrendered to rural jacqueries and to town mobs； they undergo； first；
the neglect and； next； the hostility of the State： the public gendarme
has ceased to protect them and refuses his services； afterwards； on
becoming a Jacobin； he declares himself their enemy； treats them as
enemies； plunders them； imprisons them； murders them； expels or
transports them； inflicts on them civil death； and shoots them if they
dare return； he deprives their friends or kindred who remain in France
of their civil rights； he deprives the nobles or the ennobled of their
quality as Frenchmen； and compels them to naturalize themselves afresh
according to prescribed formalities ； he renews against the Catholics
the interdictions； persecutions and brutalities which the old
government had practiced against the Calvinist minority。 … Thus； in
1799 as in 1789； there are two classes of Frenchmen； two different
varieties of men； the first one superior； installed in the civic fold；
and the second； inferior and excluded from it； only； in 1799； the
greatest inequality consigned the inferior and excluded class to a
still lower； more remote； and much worse condition。
The principle （of equalite） ； nevertheless； subsists。 Since 1789 it is
inscribed at the top of every constitution； it is still proclaimed in
the new constitution。 It has remained popular； although perverted and
disfigured by the Jacobins； their false and gross interpretation of it
could not bring it into discredit； athwart the hideous grotesque
caricature； all minds and sentiments ever recur to the ideal form of
the cité to the veritable social contract； to the impartial； active；
and permanent reign of distributive justice。 Their entire education；
all the literature； philosophy and culture of the eighteenth century；
leads them onward to this conception of society and of rights； more
profoundly still； they are predisposed to it by the inner structure of
their intelligence； by the original cast of their sensibility7 by the
hereditary defects and qualities of their nature and of their race。…
The Frenchman easily and quickly grasps some general trait of objects
and persons； some characteristic in common； here； this characteristic
is the inherent quality of man which he dexterously makes prominent；
clearly isolates； and then； stepping along briskly and confidently；
rushes ahead on the high…road to consequences。＇2＇ He has forgotten
that his summary notion merely corresponds to an extract； and a very
brief one； of man in his completeness； his decisive； precipitate
process hinders him from seeing the largest portion of the real
individual； he has overlooked numerous traits； the most important and
most efficacious； those which geography； history； habit； condition；
manual labor； or a liberal education； stamp on intellect； soul and
body and which； through their differences； constitute different local
or social groups。 Not only does he overlook all these characteristics；
but he sets them aside； they are too numerous and too complex； they
would interfere with and disturb his thoughts； however fitted for
clear and comprehensive logic he is so much the less fitted for
complex and comprehensive ideas； consequently； he avoids them and；
through an innate operation of which he is unconscious； he
involuntarily condenses； simplifies and curtails henceforth； his idea；
partial and superficial as it is； seems to him adequate and complete；
in his eyes the abstract quality of man takes precedence of and
absorbs all others； not only has this a value； but the sole va