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organs and human societies in his 〃Principles of Biology〃 and
〃Principles of Sociology。〃 I have attempted here to show the three
parallel branches of its consequences； and； again； their common root；
a constitutive and primordial property inherent in every
instrumentality。
＇2＇ Cf。 〃The Revolution；〃 III。； book VI。； ch。 2 The encroachments of
the State and their effect on individuals is there treated。 Here； the
question is their effects on corporations。 Read； on the same subject；
〃Gladstone on Church and State；〃 by Macaulay； and 〃The Man versus the
State；〃 by Herbert Spencer； two essays in which the close reasoning
and abundance of illustrations are admirable。
＇3＇ 〃The Revolution；〃 III； 346。 （Laffont II。 p 258。）
＇4＇ Ibid。； III。 284 Laff。 213。
＇5＇ 〃The Revolution；〃 III。； 353； 416。 （Laffont II。 notes pp 262 and
305 to 308。）
＇6＇ 〃The Ancient Régime；〃 64； 65； 76； 77； 120； 121； 292。 （Laffont I。
pp。 52…53； 60…61； 92 to 94； 218 to 219。）
＇7＇ 〃The Revolution；〃 I。； 177 and following pages。 （Laffont I； pp。 438
to 445。）
＇8＇ The essays of Herbert Spencer furnish examples for England under
the title of 〃Over…legislation and Representative government。〃
Examples for France may be found in 〃Liberté du Travail；〃 by Charles
Dunoyer （1845）。 This work anticipates most of the ideas of Herbert
Spencer； lacking only the physiological 〃illustrations。〃
CHAPTER III。 The New Government Organization。
I。
Precedents of the new organization。 … In practical operation。 …
Anterior usurpations of the public power。 … Spontaneous bodies under
the Ancient Regime and during the Revolution。 … Ruin and discredit of
their supports。 … The central power their sole surviving dependence。 …
Unfortunately； in France at the end of the eighteenth century the bent
was taken and the wrong bent。 For three centuries and more the public
power had increasingly violated and discredited spontaneous bodies：
Sometimes it had mutilated them and decapitated them； for example； it
had suppressed provincial governments （états） over three…quarters of
the territory； in all the electoral districts； nothing remained of the
old province but its name and an administrative circumscription。
Sometimes； without mutilating the corporate body it had upset and
deformed it； or dislocated and disjointed it。 … So that in the towns；
through changes made in old democratic constitutions； through
restrictions put upon electoral rights and repeated sales of municipal
offices；＇1＇ it had handed over municipal authority to a narrow
oligarchy of bourgeois families； privileged at the expense of the
taxpayer； half separated from the main body of the public； disliked by
the lower classes； and no longer supported by the confidence or
deference of the community。 And in the parish and in the rural canton；
it had taken away from the noble his office of resident protector and
hereditary patron； reducing him to the odious position of a mere
creditor； and； if he were a man of the court； to the yet worse
position of an absentee creditor。＇2＇ … So that in the parish and in
the rural canton； it had taken away from the noble his office of
resident protector and hereditary patron； reducing him to the odious
position of a mere creditor； and； if he were a man of the court； to
the yet worse position of an absentee creditor。＇3＇ Thus； as to the
clergy； it had almost separated the head from the trunk by superposing
（through the concordat） a staff of gentleman prelates； rich；
ostentatious； unemployed； and skeptical； upon an army of plain； poor；
laborious； and believing curates。＇4＇
Finally； it had； through a protection as untimely as it was
aggressive； sometimes conferred on the corporation oppressive
privileges which rendered it offensive and mischievous； or else
fossilized in an obsolete form which paralyzed its action or corrupted
its service。 Such was the case with the corporations of crafts and
industries to which； in consideration of financial aid； it had
conceded monopolies onerous to the consumer and a clog on industrial
enterprises。 Such was the case with the Catholic Church to which；
every five years； it granted； in exchange for its voluntary gift （of
money）； cruel favors or obnoxious prerogatives； the prolonged
persecution of Protestants； the censorship of intellectual
speculation； and the right of controlling schools and education。＇5＇
Such was the case with the universities benumbed by routine； with
latest provincial 〃ètats；〃 constituted in 1789； as in 1489。 Such was
the case with noble families subjected by law to the antique system of
substitutions and of primogeniture； that is to say； to social
constraint which； devised long ago for private as well as for public
interest in order to secure the transmission of local patronage and
political power。 This system； however； became useless and corrupting；
fecund in pernicious vanities；＇6＇ in detestable calculations； domestic
tyrannies； forced vocations； and private bickering； from the time when
the nobles； become frequenters of the court； had lost political power
and renounced local patronage。
Thus deprived of； or diverted from； their purpose； the corporate
bodies had become unrecognizable under the crust of the abuses which
disfigured them。 Nobody； except a Montesquieu； could comprehend why
they should exist； on the approach of the Revolution； they seemed； not
organs； but outgrowths； deformities； and； so to say； superannuated
monstrosities。 Their historical and natural roots； their living germs
far below the surface； their social necessity； their fundamental
utility； their possible usefulness； were no longer visible。 Only their
present inconvenience was felt； people suffered by their friction and
burden； their lack of harmony and incoherence created dissatisfaction；
annoyance due to their degeneracy were attributed to radical defects；
they were judged to be naturally unsound and were condemned； in
principle； because of the deviations and laws which the public power
had imposed on their development。
Suddenly； the public power； which had produced the evil by its
intervention； pretended to remove it by a still greater intervention：
in 1789 it again intruded itself on corporate bodies； not to reform
them； not restore each to its proper channel； not to confine each with
proper limits； but to destroy them outright。 Through a radical；
universal； and extraordinary amputation； the like of which is not
mentioned in history； with the rashness of the theorist and the
brutality of the butcher； the legislator extirpated them all； as far
as he could； even including the family； while his fury extended beyond
the present into the future。 To legal abolition and total
confiscation； he added the systematic hostility of his preventive
laws； together with a fresh obstacle in the shape of his new
constructions； during three successive legislatures＇7＇ he provided
against their future regeneration； against the permane