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stand inert； or； again； they would act outside of or beyond their
special function； either going too far or acting in a contrary sense；
never did they act with moderation and precision； with coherence and
consequence。 For this reason any desire of the government to do its
job proved unsuccessful。 Its legal subordinates … incapable； timid；
lukewarm； unmanageable； or even hostile … obeyed badly； did not obey
at all； or willfully disobeyed。 The blade of the executive instrument；
loose in the handle； glanced or broke off when the thrust had to be
made。
In the second place； never could the two or three motor forces
thrusting the handle act in harmony； owing to the clashing of so many
of them； one always ended in breaking down the other。 The Constituent
Assembly had set aside the King； the Legislative Assembly had deposed
him； the Convention had decapitated him。 Afterward each fraction of
the sovereign body in the Convention had proscribed the other； the
Montagnards had guillotined the Girondists； and the Thermidorians had
guillotined the Montagnards。 Later； under the Constitution of the year
III； the Fructidorians had banished the Constitutionalists； the
Directory had purged the Councils； and the Councils had purged the
Directory。 … Not only did the democratic and parliamentary institution
fail in its work and break down on trial； but； again； through its own
action； it became transformed into its opposite。 In a year or two a
coup d'état in Paris took place； a faction seized the central power
and converted it into an absolute power in the hands of five or six
ringleaders。 The new government at once re…forged the executive
instrument for its own advantage and refastened the blade firmly on
the handle； in the provinces it dismissed those elected by the people
and deprived the governed of the right to choose their own rulers；
henceforth； through its proconsuls on mission； or through its resident
commissioners； it alone appointed； superintended； and regulated on the
spot all local authorities。＇2＇
Thus the liberal constitution； at its close； gave birth to a
centralized despotism； and this was the worst of its species； at once
formless and monstrous； for it was born out of a civil crime； while
the government which used it had no support but a band of bigoted
fanatics or political adventurers； without any legal authority over
the nation； or any moral hold on the army； detested； threatened；
discordant； exposed to the resistance of its own upholders； to the
treachery of its own members； and living only from day to day； it
could maintain itself only through a brutal absolutism and permanent
terror； while the public power of which the first care is the
protection of property； consciences； and lives； became in its hands
the worst of persecutors； robbers； and murderers。
III。
In 1799； the undertaking is more difficult and the materials worse。
Twice in succession had the experiment been tried； the monarchical
constitution of 1791； and the republican constitution of 1795； twice
in succession had the same events followed the same course to attain
the same end； twice in succession had the theoretical； cunningly…
devised machine for universal protection changed into an efficient and
brutal machine for universal oppression。 It is evident that if the
same machine were started the third time under analogous conditions；
one might expect to see it work in the same manner； that is to say；
contrary to its purpose。
Now； in 1799； the conditions were analogous； and even worse； for the
work which the machine had to do was not less； while the human
materials available for its construction were not so good。 …
Externally； the country was constantly at war with Europe； peace could
not be secured except by great military effort； and peace was as
difficult to preserve as to win。 The European equilibrium had been too
greatly disturbed； neighboring or rival States had suffered too much；
the rancor and distrust provoked by the invading revolutionary
republic were too active； these would have lasted a long time against
pacified France even after she had concluded reasonable treaties。 Even
should she abandon a policy of propaganda and interference； return
brilliant acquisitions； cease the domination of protectorates； and
abandon the disguised annexation of Italy； Holland； and Switzerland；
the nation was still bound to keep watch under arms。 A government able
to concentrate all its forces … that is to say； placed above and
beyond all dispute and promptly obeyed…was indispensable； if only to
remain intact and complete； to keep Belgium and the frontier of the
Rhine。 … Likewise internally； and for no other purpose than to restore
civil order； for here； too； the outrages of the Revolution had been
too great。 There had been too much spoliation； too many imprisonments；
exiles； and murders； too many violations of every kind； too many
invasions of the rights of property and of persons； public and
private。 It was so much more difficult
* To insure respect for persons and all private and public
possessions；
* to restrain at once both Royalists and Jacobins；
* to restore 140；000 émigrés to their country and yet satisfy
1；200；000 possessors of national property；
* to give back to 25；000；000 of orthodox Catholics the right； faculty；
and means for worshipping； and yet not allow the schismatic clergy to
be maltreated；
* to bring face to face in the same commune the dispossessed seigneur
and the peasant holders of his domain；
* to compel the delegates of the Committee of Public Safety and their
victims； the shooters and the shot of Vendémiaire； the Fructidorians
and the Fructidorized； the Whites and the Blues of La Vendée and
Brittany； to live in peace side by side；
because the future laborers in this immense work； from the village
mayor to the state…senator and state…councilor； had borne a part in
the Revolution； either in effecting it or under subjection to it …
Monarchists； Feuillantists； Girondists； Montagnards； Thermidorians；
moderate Jacobins or desperate Jacobins； all oppressed in turn and
disappointed in their calculations。 Their passions； under this régime；
had become embittered； each brought personal bias and resentment into
the performance of his duties； to prevent him from being unjust and
mischievous demanded a tightened curb。＇3＇ All sense of conviction；
under this régime； had died out； no body would serve gratis as in
1789；＇4＇ nobody would work without pay； disinterestedness had lost all
charm； ostentatious zeal seemed hypocrisy； genuine zeal seemed self…
dupery； each looked out for himself and not for the community； public
spirit had yielded to indifference； to egotism； and to the need of
security； of enjoyment； and of self…advancement。 Human materials；
deteriorated by the Revolution； were less than ever suited to
providing citizens … they simply furnished functionaries。 With such
wheels combined toge