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and govern along with； the prefect。 Here； in local society； is a
superadded internal motor； working from below； whilst the first one is
external and works from above； from now on； both are to work together
and in accord。 … But； in reality； the second （the council…general）
remains subordinate； moreover； it does not suit the machine＇4＇ and the
machine does not suit it； it is only a superfluity； an inconvenient
and cumbersome intruder； nearly always useless； and often mischievous。
Its influence is feeble and of little effect； too many brakes are
attached to it； its force diminishes through the complexity of its
numerous wheels； it fails in giving action； it cannot but little more
than impede or moderate other impulses； those of the external motor；
sometimes as it should； and sometimes the contrary。 Most frequently；
even nowadays （1889）； it is of no efficiency whatever。 Three…quarters
of the municipal councils； for three…fourths of their business； hold
sessions only to give signatures。 Their pretended deliberations are
simply a parade formality； the incentive and direction continue to
come from without； and from above； under the third Republic； as under
the Restoration and the first Empire； it is always the central State
which governs the local society； amid all the wrangling and disputes；
in spite of passing conflicts it is； and remains； the initiator；
mover； leader； controller； accountant； and executor of every
undertaking； the preponderating power in the department as well as in
the commune； and with what deplorable results we all know。 … There is
still another and more serious result。 Nowadays； its interference is
an advantage； for should it renounce its preponderance this would pass
over to the other power which； since this has become vested in a
numerical majority； is mere blind and brutal force； abandoned to
itself and without any counter…weight； its ascendancy would be
disastrous； we would see reappearing along with the blunders of 1789；
the outrages； usurpations； and distress of 1790； 1791 and 1792。＇5＇ …
In any event； there is this advantage in despotic centralization； that
it still preserves us from democratic autonomy。 In the present state
of institutions and minds； the former system； objectionable as it may
be； is our last retreat against the greater evil of the latter。
II。 Universal suffrage。
Application of universal suffrage to local society。 … Two assessments
for the expenses of local society。 … The fixed amount of one should in
equity be equal to the average sum of the other。 … Practically； the
sum of one is kept too low。 … How the new régime provides for local
expenditure。 … The 〃additional centimes。〃 … How the small taxpayer is
relieved in town and country。 … His quota in local expenditure reduced
to the minimum。 … His quota of local benefits remains intact。 … Hence
the large or average taxpayer bears； beside his own burden； that of
the relieved small taxpayer。 … Number of those relieved。 … The extra
burden of the large and average taxpayer is alms…giving。 … The relief
of the small taxpayer is a levy of alms。
In effect； direct universal suffrage； counted by heads； is in local
society a discordant element； a monstrous system； to which it is
adverse。 Constituted as this is； not by human judgment； but by the
preponderance of numbers and their force； its mechanism is determined
beforehand； it excludes certain wheels and connections。＇6＇ That is why
the legislator must write laws which reflect the nature of our
existence； or； at least； translate this as closely as he can； without
any gross contradiction。 Nature herself presents him with ready…made
statutes。＇7＇ His business is to read these properly； he has already
transcribed the apportionment of burdens； he can now transcribe the
apportionment of rights。
So； we have seen； local society renders two distinct services＇8＇；
which； that the expenses of both may be met； require two distinct
assessments； one personal and the other real； one levied on everybody
and of which the amount is alike for all； and the other levied only on
those whose amount is based on what he spends； on the importance of
his business； and on the income from his real estate。 … In strict
equity； the amount of the former should be equal to the average amount
of the latter； in effect； as has been shown； the services defrayed by
the former are as many； as diverse； and as precious； still more vital；
and not less costly than those of which the latter is the price。 Of
the two interests which they represent； each； did it stand alone；
would be obliged to secure the same services； to take upon itself the
whole of the work； neither would obtain more in the dividend； and each
would have to pay the whole of the expense。 Accordingly； each gains as
much as the other in the physical solidarity which binds them
together。 Hence； in the legal bond which unites them they enter into
it on an equal footing； on condition that each is burdened or relived
as much as the other； on condition that if the latter assumes one…half
of the expense the former shall assume the other half； on condition
that if the latter quota on each one hundred francs expended against
calamities and for public roads is 50 francs； the former quota shall
also be 50 francs。 … Practically； however； this is impossible。 Three
times out of four the former levy with this apportionment would not be
returned； through prudence as well as humanity； the legislator is
bound not to overburden the poor。 Recently； in organizing the general
tax and the revenue of the State； he has looked out for them； now； in
organizing the local tax and the revenue of the department or of the
commune； he looks out for them to a still greater extent。
In the new financial scheme； so many centimes； added to each franc of
direct tax； form the principal resource of the department and commune；
and it is through this extra charge that each taxpayer pays his quota
of local expenditure。 Now； there is no surcharge on the personal tax；
no additional centimes。 Under this heading； the laborer without any
property or income； the workman who lives in lodgings； on his wages；
and from day to day； contributes nothing to the expenses of his
commune or department。 In vain do 〃additional centimes〃 pour down on
other branches of direct taxation； they are not grafted on this one；
and do not suck away the substance of the poor。＇9＇ … There is the
same regard for the half poor； in relation to the artisan who
furnishes his own room； but who lodges in an upper story； and in
relation to the peasant whose hovel or cottage has but one door and
one window。＇10＇ Their rate of taxation on doors and windows is very
low； purposely reduced； kept below one franc a year； while the rate of
their personal tax is scarcely higher。 〃Additional centimes〃 may be
imposed on so small a principal and be multiplied in vain； never will
they reach more than an insignificant amount。…Not only are the
destitute reli