按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
to be very like that of medieval England with its system of open
fields； its hides and virgates。 It may be also compared to the
German mark； so far as the mark is composed of a set of villages
subdivided into units partly financial； partly territorial；
called Hufen； and securing to their private holders； like the
English virgates； the right to have a distinct share in the
arable fields and in the meadows of the village。
Now that we are aware of the peculiar features of the
medieval village community； let us ascertain the reasons which
have produced a complete revolution in its interior organisation
by the introduction of the principle of equal division of the
soil among its individual members； and the system of periodical
allotments of ground in order to secure this equality。
Two facts seem to have contributed to this result； the first
was the increase of population； which； as we have already shown
in the instance of Little Russian communes； sooner or later
induces the majority of persons holding small shares to force the
rest to proceed to a redistribution of the soil。 The other fact
is the replacing of the land…tax by a sort of capitation tax； and
the introduction of the principle of mutual responsibility； in
matters of taxation。 The first of these causes； increase of
population； remained inoperative as long as the peasant retained
the liberty of removing freely from one place to another。 Much
ground was lying waste。 Landowners had no other thought than how
to induce new colonists to settle on it； with this end in view
they regularly freed them from all taxes for a period of three
years。 Those of the villagers； who thought themselves sacrificed
to the interests of their neighbours could； therefore； easily
find the land they wanted and that under very favourable
conditions。 They had only to leave the village they inhabited and
seek for new homes； either on the still unoccupied steppes or on
the manors possessed by the crown； the church； or the landed
aristocracy。
Such was no longer the case when serfdom became a general
rule； and the right of free migration was refused to the peasant。
This happened during the period which extends from the end of the
sixteenth to that of the seventeenth century。 Two decades later
followed the great change in matters of taxation when Peter the
Great abolished the land…tax； and introduced the capitation…tax。
This happened in the year 1719。 Mutual responsibility of persons
belonging to the same village was introduced； and both landlords
and peasants were allowed to take preventive measures against
those who might seek to escape the obligation of paying the
personal tax by withdrawing from their habitations。
When this revolution was accomplished and each household
began to be taxed； not according to the quantity of land it
owned； but according to the number of persons attributed to it in
the taxation returns； the grossest injustice would necessarily
arise if the soil remained in the hands of its then holders。
Complaints were therefore made； and petitions addressed； in which
the old division of the village area was declared to be
obnoxious； and an equality of shares was demanded as a necessary
condition for the regular fulfilment by each village of its
financial obligations towards the State。 An instance of such a
request is that presented by the peasants of the village of
Petrovsk in the year 1725； in which they ask to have an equal
share of land allotted to each member of the commune； all other
kinds of allotment being contrary to justice。 Similar demands
must have been made repeatedly before the members of the
legislative commission； convened by Catherine the Second；
received orders to protest against the requirements of those who
wanted all the land of a village to be distributed in equal
shares according to the number of souls； notwithstanding that
these lands had been fertilised by the work and private industry
of the first settlers。*
For the reasons just mentioned； a redistribution of the land
was made at least every time the Government revised its taxation
returns； such revision occurring every nineteenth year。 It was
felt necessary to establish a direct relation between the number
of persons living in a household； and the amount of land
possessed by the household； and the fact； that the actual number
of such persons did not correspond to those enumerated in the
taxation returns； even after the lapse of a few years； led some
communes to have recourse to more frequent divisions。 It is in
this way that we may explain how it was brought about； that
redistributions came to be made every sixth or even every third
year。 We hear of no yearly distribution because the three field
system； still prevailing in Russia； required at least a three
years' rotation of the crops。 It was not always the country
people who took the initiative in an equal re…allotment of the
soil according to the number of persons taxed。 Mr Zabelin has
brought forward instances； in which such allotments were made on
the initiative of the lord of the manor； and Mr Schimanov has
produced a curious case； in which such re…allotment was made by
the direct order of a provincial Governor； who thought that
justice required that the number of shares； owned by each
household； should correspond to the number of souls composing it。
This happened not longer ago than the second half of the
seventeenth century in the Government of Kharkov； where
inequality of shares had been up to that time the general rule。
It is only by a general agreement between the people and the
authorities that we can explain the rapid expansion of the
present system。 We do not find any trace of such redistributions
before the end of the seventeenth century； when the borough of
Schouia began to make new allotments of ground every ten years。*
Having now finished with the past history of the Russian
village commune； we shall proceed to the study of its modern
arrangements。 These have formed the subject of very curious
investigations； which have been carried on during the last few
years by a number of young Russian economists； employed by the
elective councils or 〃zemstva〃 of our provinces。 Their work will
probably be as valuable to coming generations； as that performed
in England a century ago by Messrs Sinclair and Marshall； or as
that； which in our own day is still going on in India under the
enlightened supervision of the Indian Settlement Commissioners。 I
shall make free use of the rich material； which these skilful and
untiring workers have accumulated； in order to present to you a
picture of the prevailing system； the mir or village community of
to…day。
According to the law of emancipation promulgated the 19th
February 1861； the peasantry continue to possess an organisation
quite distinct from that of the other classes of society。 The
ancient 〃volost〃 （or mark） is preserved or rather revived； and
the villages are； as they were centuries ago； the administrative
units of which it is formed。 The volost and the village have
alike their elected authorities； the right of election being
based on a kind of universal suffrage； exercised