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the run…rig system which characterises the modern village
community。 But as it is impossible that shares should be equal
without recourse to some such method； we must not look for
equality under the conditions just stated。 Even in the eighteenth
century； when the growth of population had diminished the area of
arable land； periodical redistribution remained unknown。 If some
amount of equality was； nevertheless； secured； it was due to the
control which the commune began to exert over its members。
Private appropriation of soil was no longer allowed； except on
the condition of its being made at certain fixed periods； and
under the supervision of the authorities。 Twice a year； in autumn
and in spring； the whole commune； with its cattle and its
agricultural implements； went out into the open field。 At the
command of the village…elder； the head of each homestead
proceeded to trace with his own plough the limits of the ground
he intended to sow； and no one was allowed to extend his
cultivation beyond the limits thus settled。 By…and…by the right
of retaining these private parcels of ground was extended to a
period of three years； at the end of which they returned to the
commune； and a new appropriation of the arable area was ordered
to be made。
Hitherto I have spoken of the mode in which land was enjoyed
so far as it applied to arable land alone。 Let us now say a word
about the meadows； forest land； and pastures。 The first were
owned on conditions similar to those first mentioned。 At the end
of May a day was fixed when all the villagers were assembled for
the hay harvest。 Each householder marked with a scythe the limits
of the meadow he intended to mow。 It was the duty of the
village…elders to see that these limits were strictly observed。
Forests and pastures were so abundant that no measuring was
needed to regulate their use。 Non…division and common enjoyment
remained the general rule； several villages very often possessing
equal rights to take fuel and to pasture cattle in the same
forests and wastes。
Whilst this was the state of things on the banks of the
Dnieper； a similar evolution took place on those of the Don。 An
area； even larger than that of the south…western steppes in the
middle of the sixteenth century； awaited the arrival of those
Great Russian colonists； who founded the so…called Territory of
the Don…Cossacks。 For a while the ground was declared to be the
common property of the whole community； and each family was
allowed to sow and mow wherever it liked； but by…and…by large
villages called 〃stanitza〃 were formed； and the first division of
the ground took place。 Each village received its own area of
arable and meadow ground； pasture and waste land remained the
common property of the whole people； or； as it was said； of the
whole 〃army。〃
The unlimited right of private homesteads to appropriate as
much soil as each required was scrupulously maintained by these
stanitzas； a fact which in the end produced great inequality in
the distribution of the land。 This inequality was established in
favour of a minority of families out of which the elders of the
people were regularly chosen； but as those who were possessed of
but small parcels of land formed the majority； various economic
arrangements were regularly made at the village folkmotes where
this majority was all powerful； redistributions of land in order
to equalise the shares were very often prescribed and the system
of run…rig tenure made its first appearance。 This took place
almost in our own time； some few stanitzas continuing even now to
maintain their ancient privilege of private appropriation。
I might continue my survey of the beginnings of the modern
system of village communities by a description of the economic
arrangements still in use among the Cossacks of the Terek or of
the Oural； but if I did so； I should only have to repeat the same
facts； and that in order to deduce the following conclusions。
That the modern system of periodical redistribution of land in
equal shares was quite unknown when colonisation first began； but
that this did not prevent a peculiar kind of agrarian communism；
the foundations of which are to be traced in the internal
constitution of the undivided household； and that this form of
social existence was known to Russia at the beginning of her
history； and was diffused all over her empire； as may be seen
from the frequent occurrence in medieval documents of terms like
〃the hearth；〃 〃the fire〃 （pechische； ognische）。
All the districts we have passed in review had one thing in
common； serfdom was almost unknown to them。 The peasants of
Archangel for instance were always named 〃svoiezemzi；〃 which
means independent possessors of the soil。 Social distinctions
remained almost unknown to the Little Russians down to the end of
the eighteenth century when Catherine the Second introduced
amongst them the notions of a feudal nobility and serfdom。 The
Cossacks of the Don remained free up to the time of Nicholas。 I
am； therefore； right in saying that agrarian communism is not the
direct result of serfdom； since it has been shown to exist in
regions where serfdom was unknown。
A careful study of old Russian documents does not add much to
the strength of this argument。 The illiterate peasants could not
consign to writing the economic arrangements they entered into；
and in this fact lies the true reason why； out of the various
categories into which the Russian peasantry was divided during
the middle ages； none is less familiar to us than the free
villager； the occupier of the so…called 〃black hundreds〃 （chernia
sotni）。 The commune was completely independent in matters of
internal concern； there was no need for the government or for
judicial charters to meddle in its system of land tenure。 What
information we can gather from them of the external organisation
of the volost or commune proves however the prevalence of a
communistic and democratic mode of existence。 The assembly of the
people； the folkmote； called in the South Western provinces of
Russia the 〃veche；〃 more often 〃the copa；〃 was formed of all the
house…elders of a volost。 It possessed the right of making local
bye…laws； of choosing the elders of the commune or 〃starostas〃；
of distributing among its members the direct taxes which the
government imposed on agriculture and on the different industries
of the nation （sochi i promisli）。 Persons were also chosen by the
commune to assist the judges in the exercise of their duties；
playing n this occasion the part reserved in medieval Germany to
the so…called Schoffen and in old Sweden to the 〃nemd。〃*
As to the relation in which the volost stood to the ground
that it occupied； this subject is partly illustrated by the
following facts。
We possess a small number of private charters and judicial
records； belonging to the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries；
from which we may see； that the true owner of the soil was partly
the village and partly the 〃volost；〃 or association of villagers。
To give you an instance of what I am saying； I will cite the
precise text of some of these charters。
In 1555 a lawsuit began be