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productive forces； are periodically destroyed。 In these crises
there breaks out an epidemic that； in all earlier epochs； would
have seemed an absurdity the epidemic of over…production。
Society suddenly finds itself put back into a state of momentary
barbarism； it appears as if a famine； a universal war of
devastation had cut off the supply of every means of subsistence；
industry and commerce seem to be destroyed； and why？ Because
there is too much civilisation； too much means of subsistence；
too much industry； too much commerce。 The productive forces at
the disposal of society no longer tend to further the development
of the conditions of bourgeois property； on the contrary； they
have become too powerful for these conditions； by which they are
fettered； and so soon as they overcome these fetters； they bring
disorder into the whole of bourgeois society； endanger the
existence of bourgeois property。 The conditions of bourgeois
society are too narrow to comprise the wealth created by them。
And how does the bourgeoisie get over these crises？ On the one
hand inforced destruction of a mass of productive forces； on the
other； by the conquest of new markets； and by the more thorough
exploitation of the old ones。 That is to say； by paving the way
for more extensive and more destructive crises； and by
diminishing the means whereby crises are prevented。
The weapons with which the bourgeoisie felled feudalism to the
ground are now turned against the bourgeoisie itself。
But not only has the bourgeoisie forged the weapons that bring
death to itself； it has also called into existence the men who
are to wield those weapons the modern working class the
proletarians。
In proportion as the bourgeoisie； i。e。； capital； is developed；
in the same proportion is the proletariat； the modern working
class； developed a class of labourers； who live only so long
as they find work； and who find work only so long as their labour
increases capital。 These labourers； who must sell themselves
piece…meal； are a commodity； like every other article of
commerce； and are consequently exposed to all the vicissitudes of
competition； to all the fluctuations of the market。
Owing to the extensive use of machinery and to division of
labour； the work of the proletarians has lost all individual
character； and consequently； all charm for the workman。 He
becomes an appendage of the machine； and it is only the most
simple； most monotonous； and most easily acquired knack； that is
required of him。 Hence； the cost of production of a workman is
restricted； almost entirely； to the means of subsistence that he
requires for his maintenance； and for the propagation of his
race。 But the price of a commodity； and therefore also of
labour； is equal to its cost of production。 In proportion
therefore； as the repulsiveness of the work increases； the wage
decreases。 Nay more； in proportion as the use of machinery and
division of labour increases； in the same proportion the burden
of toil also increases； whether by prolongation of the working
hours； by increase of the work exacted in a given time or by
increased speed of the machinery； etc。
Modern industry has converted the little workshop of the
patriarchal master into the great factory of the industrial
capitalist。 Masses of labourers； crowded into the factory； are
organised like soldiers。 As privates of the industrial army they
are placed under the command of a perfect hierarchy of officers
and sergeants。 Not only are they slaves of the bourgeois class；
and of the bourgeois State； they are daily and hourly enslaved by
the machine； by the over…looker； and； above all； by the
individual bourgeois manufacturer himself。 The more openly this
despotism proclaims gain to be its end and aim； the more petty；
the more hateful and the more embittering it is。
The less the skill and exertion of strength implied in manual
labour； in other words； the more modern industry becomes
developed；
the more is the labour of men superseded by that of women。
Differences of age and sex have no longer any distinctive social
validity for the working class。 All are instruments of labour；
more or less expensive to use； according to their age and sex。
No sooner is the exploitation of the labourer by the
manufacturer；
so far； at an end； that he receives his wages in cash； than he is
set upon by the other portions of the bourgeoisie； the landlord；
the shopkeeper； the pawnbroker； etc。
The lower strata of the middle class the small tradespeople；
shopkeepers； retired tradesmen generally； the handicraftsmen and
peasants all these sink gradually into the proletariat； partly
because their diminutive capital does not suffice for the scale
on which Modern Industry is carried on； and is swamped in the
competition with the large capitalists； partly because their
specialized skill is rendered worthless by the new methods of
production。 Thus the proletariat is recruited from all classes
of the population。
The proletariat goes through various stages of development。
With its birth begins its struggle with the bourgeoisie。 At
first the contest is carried on by individual labourers； then by
the workpeople of a factory； then by the operatives of one trade；
in one locality； against the individual bourgeois who directly
exploits them。 They direct their attacks not against the
bourgeois conditions of production； but against the instruments
of production themselves； they destroy imported wares that
compete with their labour； they smash to pieces machinery； they
set factories ablaze； they seek to restore by force the vanished
status of the workman of the Middle Ages。
At this stage the labourers still form an incoherent mass
scattered over the whole country； and broken up by their mutual
competition。 If anywhere they unite to form more compact bodies；
this is not yet the consequence of their own active union； but of
the union of the bourgeoisie； which class； in order to attain its
own political ends； is compelled to set the whole proletariat in
motion； and is moreover yet； for a time； able to do so。 At this
stage； therefore； the proletarians do not fight their enemies；
but the enemies of their enemies； the remnants of absolute
monarchy； the landowners； the non…industrial bourgeois； the petty
bourgeoisie。 Thus the whole historical movement is concentrated
in the hands of the bourgeoisie； every victory so obtained is a
victory for the bourgeoisie。
But with the development of industry the proletariat not only
increases in number； it becomes concentrated in greater masses；
its strength grows； and it feels that strength more。 The various
interests and conditions of life within the ranks of the
proletariat are more and more equalised； in proportion as
machinery obliterates all distinctions of labour； and nearly
everywhere reduces wages to the same low level。 The growing
competition among the bo