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they disbelieved in immortality； for I am not aware that there
is anything to show that they thought the existence of the souls
of the dead in Sheol ever came to an end。 But they do not seem
to have conceived that the condition of the souls in Sheol was
in any way affected by their conduct in life。 If there was
immortality； there was no state of retribution in their
theology。 Samuel expects Saul and his sons to come to him
in Sheol。
The next circumstance to be remarked is that the name of
Elohim is applied to the spirit which the woman sees
〃coming up out of the earth；〃 that is to say； from Sheol。
The Authorised Version translates this in its literal sense
〃gods。〃 The Revised Version gives 〃god〃 with 〃gods〃 in the
margin。 Reuss renders the word by 〃spectre；〃 remarking in a note
that it is not quite exact； but that the word Elohim expresses
〃something divine； that is to say； superhuman； commanding
respect and terror〃 （〃Histoire des Israelites；〃 p。 321）。
Tuch； in his commentary on Genesis； and Thenius； in his
commentary on Samuel； express substantially the same opinion。
Dr。 Alexander （in Kitto's 〃Cyclopaedia〃 s。 v。 〃God〃） has the
following instructive remarks：
＇Elohim is＇ sometimes used vaguely to describe unseen
powers or superhuman beings that are not properly thought of as
divine。 Thus the witch of Endor saw 〃Elohim ascending out of the
earth〃 （1 Sam。 xxviii。 13）； meaning thereby some beings of an
unearthly； superhuman character。 So also in Zechariah xii。 8； it
is said 〃the house of David shall be as Elohim； as the angel of
the Lord；〃 where； as the transition from Elohim to the angel of
the Lord is a minori ad majus； we must regard the former as a
vague designation of supernatural powers。
Dr。 Alexander speaks here of 〃beings〃； but there is no reason to
suppose that the wise woman of Endor referred to anything but a
solitary spectre； and it is quite clear that Saul understood her
in this sense； for he asks 〃What form is HE of？〃
This fact； that the name of Elohim is applied to a ghost； or
disembodied soul； conceived as the image of the body in which it
once dwelt； is of no little importance。 For it is well known
that the same term was employed to denote the gods of the
heathen； who were thought to have definite quasi…corporeal forms
and to be as much real entities as any other Elohim。 The
difference which was supposed to exist between the different
Elohim was one of degree； not one of kind。 Elohim was； in
logical terminology； the genus of which ghosts； Chemosh； Dagon；
Baal； and Jahveh were species。 The Israelite believed Jahveh to
be immeasurably superior to all other kinds of Elohim。 The
inscription on the Moabite stone shows that King Mesa held
Chemosh to be； as unquestionably； the superior of Jahveh。 But if
Jahveh was thus supposed to differ only in degree from the
undoubtedly zoomorphic or anthropomorphic 〃gods of the nations；〃
why is it to be assumed that he also was not thought of as
having a human shape？ It is possible for those who forget that
the time of the great prophetic writers is at least as remote
from that of Saul as our day is from that of Queen Elizabeth； to
insist upon interpreting the gross notions current in the
earlier age and among the mass of the people by the refined
conceptions promulgated by a few select spirits centuries later。
But if we take the language constantly used concerning the Deity
in the books of Genesis； Exodus； Joshua； Judges； Samuel； or
Kings； in its natural sense （and I am aware of no valid reason
which can be given for taking it in any other sense）； there
cannot； to my mind； be a doubt that Jahveh was conceived by
those from whom the substance of these books is mainly derived；
to possess the appearance and the intellectual and moral
attributes of a man； and； indeed； of a man of just that type
with which the Israelites were familiar in their stronger and
intellectually abler rulers and leaders。 In a well…known passage
in Genesis （i。 27） Elohim is said to have 〃created man in his
own image； in the image of Elohim created he him。〃 It is 〃man〃
who is here said to be the image of Elohimnot man's soul
alone； still less his 〃reason；〃 but the whole man。 It is obvious
that for those who call a manlike ghost Elohim； there could be
no difficulty in conceiving any other Elohim under the same
aspect。 And if there could be any doubt on this subject； surely
it cannot stand in the face of what we find in the fifth
chapter； where； immediately after a repetition of the statement
that 〃Elohim created man； in the likeness of Elohim made he
him；〃 it is said that Adam begat Seth 〃in his own likeness；
after his image。〃 Does this mean that Seth resembled Adam only
in a spiritual and figurative sense？ And if that interpretation
of the third verse of the fifth chapter of Genesis is absurd；
why does it become reasonable in the first verse of the
same chapter？
But let us go further。 Is not the Jahveh who 〃walks in the
garden in the cool of the day〃； from whom one may hope to 〃hide
oneself among the trees〃； of whom it is expressly said that
〃Moses and Aaron； Nadab and Abihu； and seventy of the elders of
Israel；〃 saw the Elohim of Israel （Exod。 xxiv。 9…11）； and that；
although the seeing Jahveh was understood to be a high crime and
misdemeanour； worthy of death； under ordinary circumstances；
yet； for this once； he 〃laid not his hand on the nobles of
Israel〃； 〃that they beheld Elohim and did eat and drink〃；
and that afterwards Moses saw his back （Exod。 xxxiii。 23）is
not this Deity conceived as manlike in form？ Again； is not the
Jahveh who eats with Abraham under the oaks at Mamre； who is
pleased with the 〃sweet savour〃 of Noah's sacrifice； to whom
sacrifices are said to be 〃food〃is not this Deity depicted
as possessed of human appetites？ If this were not the current
Israelitish idea of Jahveh even in the eighth century B。C。；
where is the point of Isaiah's scathing admonitions to his
countrymen： 〃To what purpose is the multitude of your sacrifices
unto me？ saith Jahveh： I am full of the burnt…offerings of rams
and the fat of fed beasts； and I delight not in the blood of
bullocks； or of lambs； or of he…goats〃 （Isa。 i。 11）。 Or of
Micah's inquiry； 〃Will Jahveh be pleased with thousands of rams
or with ten thousands of rivers of oil？〃 （vi。 7。） And in the
innumerable passages in which Jahveh is said to be jealous of
other gods； to be angry； to be appeased； and to repent； in which
he is represented as casting off Saul because the king does not
quite literally execute a command of the most ruthless severity；
or as smiting Uzzah to death because the unfortunate man
thoughtlessly； but naturally enough； put out his hand to stay
the ark from fallingcan any one deny that the old Israelites
conceived Jahveh not only in the image of a man； but in that of
a changeable； irritable； and； occasionally； violent man？
There appears to me； t