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stbetter； as it seems to me； than that reflected in the rapid and wholly commercialized development of Western Canada； which is not flavored by any age but this。
But much of the frontier of Australia is occupied by men of means who had behind them government aid and a semi…paternal encouragement in their adventures。 The same is true in part of the government…fostered settlement of Western Canada。 It was not so with the American West。 Here was not the place of the rich man but of the poor man； and he had no one to aid him or encourage him。 Perhaps no man ever understood the American West who did not himself go there and make his living in that country； as did the men who found it and held it first。 Each life on our old frontier was a personal adventure。 The individual had no government behind him and he lacked even the protection of any law。
Our frontier crawled west from the first seaport settlements； afoot； on horseback； in barges； or with slow wagon…trains。 It crawled across the Alleghanies； down the great river valleys and up them yet again； and at last； in days of new transportation； it leaped across divides； from one river valley to another。 Its history； at first so halting； came to be very swiftso swift that it worked great elisions in its own story。
In our own day； however； the Old West generally means the old cow country of the Westthe high plains and the lower foothills running from the Rio Grande to the northern boundary。 The still more ancient cattle…range of the lower Pacific Slope will never come into acceptance as the Old West。 Always； when we use these words； we think of buffalo plains and of Indians； and of their passing before the footmen and riders who carried the phantom flag of Drake and the Virgin Queen from the Appalachians to the Rockiesbefore the men who eventually made good that glorious and vaunting vision of the Virginia cavaliers； whose party turned back from the Rockfish Gap after laying claim in the name of King George on all the country lying west of them； as far as the South Sea！
The American cow country may with very good logic arrogate to itself the title of the real and typical frontier of all the world。 We call the spirit of the frontier Elizabethan； and so it was； but even as the Elizabethan Age was marked by its contact with the Spanish civilization in Europe； on the high seas； and in both the Americas； so the last frontier of the American West also was affected； and largely； deeply； by Spanish influence and Spanish customs。 The very phraseology of range work bears proof of this。 Scores of Spanish words are written indelibly in the language of the Plains。 The frontier of the cow…range never was Saxon alone。
It is a curious fact also； seldom if ever noted； that this Old West of the Plains was very largely Southern and not Northern on its Saxon side。 No States so much as Kentucky and Tennessee and； later； Missouridaughters of Old Virginia in her glorycontributed to the forces of the frontiersmen。 Texas； farther to the south； put her stamp indelibly upon the entire cattle industry of the West。 Visionary； impractical； restless； adventurous； these later Elizabethan heroesbowing to no yoke； insisting on their own rights and scorning often the laws of others； yet careful to retain the best and most advantageous customs of any conquered countrynaturally came from those nearest Elizabethan countries which lay abandoned behind them。
If the atmosphere of the Elizabethan Age still may be found in the forgotten Cumberlands； let us lay claim to kinship with yonder roystering heroes of a gallant day； for this was ever the atmosphere of our own frontier。 To feel again the following breezes of the Golden Hind； or see again； floating high in the cloudless skies； the sails of the Great Armada； was the privilege of Americans for a double decade within the memory of men yet living； in that country； so unfailingly beloved； which we call the Old West of America。
Chapter II。 The Range
When； in 1803； those two immortal youths； Meriwether Lewis and William Clark； were about to go forth on their great journey across the continent； they were admonished by Thomas Jefferson that they would in all likelihood encounter in their travels； living and stalking about； the mammoth or the mastodon； whose bones had been found in the great salt…licks of Kentucky。 We smile now at such a supposition； yet it was not unreasonable then。 No man knew that tremendous country that lay beyond the mouth of the Missouri。
The explorers crossed one portion of a vast land which was like to nothing they had ever seenthe region later to become the great cattle…range of America。 It reached； although they could know nothing of that； from the Spanish possessions on the south across a thousand miles of short grass lands to the present Canadian boundary line which certain obdurate American souls still say ought to have been at 54 degrees 40 minutes； and not where it is！ From the Rio Grande to 〃Fifty…four forty；〃 indeed； would have made nice measurements for the Saxon cattle…range。
Little； however； was the value of this land understood by the explorers； and； for more than half a century afterwards； it commonly was supposed to be useless for the occupation of white men and suitable only as a hunting…ground for savage tribes。 Most of us can remember the school maps of our own youth； showing a vast region marked； vaguely； 〃The Great American Desert；〃 which was considered hopeless for any human industry； but much of which has since proved as rich as any land anywhere on the globe。
Perhaps it was the treeless nature of the vast Plains which carried the first idea of their infertility。 When the first settlers of Illinois and Indiana came up from south of the Ohio River they had their choice of timber and prairie lands。 Thinking the prairies worthlesssince land which could not raise a tree certainly could not raise cropsthese first occupants of the Middle West spent a generation or more； axe in hand； along the heavily timbered river…bottoms。 The prairies were long in settling。 No one then could have predicted that farm lands in that region would be worth three hundred dollars an acre or better； and that these prairies of the Mississippi Valley would； in a few generations； be studded with great towns and would form a part of the granary of the world。
But； if our early explorers； passing beyond the valley of the Missouri； found valueless the region of the Plains and the foothills； not so the wild creatures or the savage men who had lived there longer than science records。 The buffalo then ranged from the Rio Grande to the Athabaska； from the Missouri to the Rockies； and beyond。 No one seems to have concluded in those days that there was after all slight difference between the buffalo and the domestic ox。 The native cattle； however； in untold thousands and millions； had even then proved beyond peradventure the sustaining and strengthening nature of the grasses of the Plains。
Now； each creature； even of human species； must adjust itself to its environment。 Having done so； commonly it is disposed to love that environment。 The Eskimo and the Zulu each thinks that he has the best land in the world： So with the American Indian；