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market…place； and as day declined； wherever the largest throng might
be encountered； there was he to be found； talking for the most part；
while any one who chose might stop and listen。 Yet no one ever heard
him say； or saw him do anything impious or irreverent。 Indeed； in
contrast to others he set his face against all discussion of such
high matters as the nature of the Universe； how the 〃kosmos；〃 as the
savants＇8＇ phrase it； came into being；＇9＇ or by what forces the
celestial phenomena arise。 To trouble one's brain about such matters
was； he argued； to play the fool。 He would ask first： Did these
investigators feel their knowledge of things human so complete that
they betook themselves to these lofty speculations？ Or did they
maintain that they were playing their proper parts in thus neglecting
the affairs of man to speculate on the concerns of God？ He was
astonished they did not see how far these problems lay beyond mortal
ken； since even those who pride themselves most on their discussion of
these points differ from each other； as madmen do。 For just as some
madmen； he said； have no apprehension of what is truly terrible；
others fear where no fear is； some are ready to say and do anything in
public without the slightest symptom of shame；＇10＇ others think they
ought not so much as to set foot among their fellow…men； some honour
neither temple； nor altar； nor aught else sacred to the name of God；
others bow down to stocks and stones and worship the very beasts：so
is it with those thinkers whose minds are cumbered with cares＇11＇
concerning the Universal Nature。 One sect＇12＇ has discovered that
Being is one and indivisible。 Another＇13＇ that it is infinite in
number。 If one＇14＇ proclaims that all things are in a continual flux；
another＇15＇ replies that nothing can possibly be moved at any time。
The theory of the universe as a process of birth and death is met by
the counter theory； that nothing ever could be born or ever will die。
＇8＇ Lit。 〃the sophists。〃 See H。 Sidgwick； 〃J。 of Philol。〃 iv。 1872； v。
1874。
＇9＇ Reading ｛ephu｝。 Cf。 Lucian； 〃Icaromenip。〃 xlvi。 4； in imitation of
this passage apparently； or if ｛ekhei｝； translate 〃is arranged。〃
See Grote； 〃H。 G。〃 viii。 573。
＇10＇ See 〃Anab。〃 V。 iv。 30。
＇11＇ See Arist。 〃Clouds；〃 101； ｛merimnophrontistai kaloi te kagathoi｝。
＇12＇ e。g。 Xenophanes and Parmenides； see Grote； 〃Plato；〃 I。 i。 16
foll。
＇13＇ e。g。 Leucippus and Democritus； ib。 63 foll。
＇14＇ e。g。 Heraclitus； ib。 27 foll。
＇15＇ e。g。 Zeno； ib。 ii。 96。
But the questioning of Socrates on the merits of these speculators
sometimes took another form。 The student of human learning expects； he
said； to make something of his studies for the benefit of himself or
others； as he likes。 Do these explorers into the divine operations
hope that when they have discovered by what forces the various
phenomena occur； they will create winds and waters at will and
fruitful seasons？ Will they manipulate these and the like to suit
their needs？ or has no such notion perhaps ever entered their heads；
and will they be content simply to know how such things come into
existence？ But if this was his mode of describing those who meddle
with such matters as these； he himself never wearied of discussing
human topics。 What is piety？ what is impiety？ What is the beautiful？
what the ugly？ What the noble？ what the base？ What are meant by just
and unjust？ what by sobriety and madness？ what by courage and
cowardice？ What is a state？ what is a statesman？ what is a ruler over
men？ what is a ruling character？ and other like problems； the
knowledge of which； as he put it； conferred a patent of nobility on
the possessor；＇16＇ whereas those who lacked the knowledge might
deservedly be stigmatised as slaves。
＇16＇ Or； 〃was distinctive of the 'beautiful and good。'〃 For the phrase
see below； ii。 2 et passim。
Now； in so far as the opinions of Socrates were unknown to the world
at large； it is not surprising that the court should draw false
conclusions respecting them； but that facts patent to all should have
been ignored is indeed astonishing。
At one time Socrates was a member of the Council；＇17＇ he had taken the
senatorial oath； and sworn 〃as a member of that house to act in
conformity with the laws。〃 It was thus he chanced to be President of
the Popular Assembly；＇18＇ when that body was seized with a desire to
put the nine＇19＇ generals； Thrasyllus； Erasinides； and the rest； to
death by a single inclusive vote。 Whereupon； in spite of the bitter
resentment of the people； and the menaces of several influential
citizens； he refused to put the question； esteeming it of greater
importance faithfully to abide by the oath which he had taken； than to
gratify the people wrongfully； or to screen himself from the menaces
of the mighty。 The fact being； that with regard to the care bestowed
by the gods upon men； his belief differed widely from that of the
multitude。 Whereas most people seem to imagine that the gods know in
part； and are ignorant in part； Socrates believed firmly that the gods
know all thingsboth the things that are said and the things that are
done； and the things that are counselled in the silent chambers of the
heart。 Moreover； they are present everywhere； and bestow signs upon
man concerning all the things of man。
＇17＇ Or 〃Senate。〃 Lit。 〃the Boule。〃
＇18＇ Lit。 〃Epistates of the Ecclesia。〃 See Grote； 〃H。 G。〃 viii。 271；
Plat。 〃Apol。〃 32 B。
＇19＇ ｛ennea｝ would seem to be a slip of the pen for ｛okto｝； eight。 See
〃Hell。〃 I。 v。 16； vi。 16； vi。 29； vii。 1 foll。
I can； therefore； but repeat my former words。 It is a marvel to me how
the Athenians came to be persuaded that Socrates fell short of sober…
mindedness as touching the gods。 A man who never ventured one impious
word or deed against the gods we worship； but whose whole language
concerning them； and his every act； closely coincided； word for word；
and deed for deed； with all we deem distinctive of devoutest piety。
II
No less surprising to my mind is the belief that Socrates corrupted
the young。 This man； who； beyond what has been already stated； kept
his appetites and passions under strict control； who was pre…eminently
capable of enduring winter's cold and summer's heat and every kind of
toil； who was so schooled to curtail his needs that with the scantiest
of means he never lacked sufficiencyis it credible that such a man
could have made others irreverent or lawless； or licentious； or
effeminate in face of toil？ Was he not rather the saving of many
through the passion for virtue which he roused in them； and the hope
he infused that through careful management of themselves they might
grow to be truly beautiful and goodnot indeed that he ever undertook
to be a teacher of virtue； but being evidently virtuous himself he
made those who associated with him hope that by imitating they might
at last resemble him。
But let it not be inferred that he was negligent of his own body or
approved of those who neglected theirs。 If excess of eating；
counteracted by excess of toil； was a dietary of which he
disapproved；＇1＇ to gratify the natural claim of appetite in
conju