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provide them with horses； carriages； and provisions； at a price
regulated by the purveyor。 Great Britain is； I believe； the only
monarchy in Europe where the oppression of purveyance has been
entirely abolished。 It still subsists in France and Germany。
The public taxes to which they were subject were as
irregular and oppressive as the services。 The ancient lords；
though extremely unwilling to grant themselves any pecuniary aid
to their sovereign； easily allowed him to tallage； as they called
it their tenants； and had not knowledge enough to foresee how
much this must in the end affect their own revenue。 The taille；
as it still subsists in France； may serve as an example of those
ancient tallages。 It is a tax upon the supposed profits of the
farmer； which they estimate by the stock that he has upon the
farm。 It is his interest； therefore； to appear to have as little
as possible； and consequently to employ as little as possible in
its cultivation； and none in its improvement。 Should any stock
happen to accumulate in the hands of a French farmer； the taille
is almost equal to a prohibition of its ever being employed upon
the land。 This tax； besides； is supposed to dishonour whoever is
subject to it； and to degrade him below； not only the rank of a
gentleman； but that of a burgher； and whoever rents the lands of
another becomes subject to it。 No gentleman； nor even any burgher
who has stock； will submit to this degradation。 This tax；
therefore； not only hinders the stock which accumulates upon the
land from being employed in its improvement； but drives away an
other stock from it。 The ancient tenths and fifteenths； so usual
in England in former times； seem； so far as they affected the
land； to have been taxes of the same nature with the taille。
Under all these discouragements； little improvement could be
expected from the occupiers of land。 That order of people； with
all the liberty and security which law can give； must always
improve under great disadvantages。 The farmer； compared with the
proprietor； is as a merchant who trades with borrowed money
compared with one who trades with his own。 The stock of both may
improve； but that of the one； with only equal good conduct； must
always improve more slowly than that of the other； on account of
the large share of the profits which is consumed by the interest
of the loan。 The lands cultivated by the farmer must； in the same
manner； with only equal good conduct； be improved more slowly
than those cultivated by the proprietor； on account of the large
share of the produce which is consumed in the rent； and which；
had the farmer been proprietor； he might have employed in the
further improvement of the land。 The station of a farmer besides
is； from the nature of things； inferior to that of a proprietor。
Through the greater part of Europe the yeomanry are regarded as
an inferior rank of people； even to the better sort of tradesmen
and mechanics； and in all parts of Europe to the great merchants
and master manufacturers。 It can seldom happen； therefore； that a
man of any considerable stock should quit the superior in order
to place himself in an inferior station。 Even in the present
state of Europe； therefore； little stock is likely to go from any
other profession to the improvement of land in the way of
farming。 More does perhaps in Great Britain than in any other
country； though even there the great stocks which are； in some
places； employed in farming have generally been acquired by
farming； the trade； perhaps； in which of all others stock is
commonly acquired most slowly。 After small proprietors； however；
rich and great farmers are； in every country； the principal
improvers。 There are more such perhaps in England than in any
other European monarchy。 In the republican governments of Holland
and of Berne in Switzerland； the farmers are said to be not
inferior to those of England。
The ancient policy of Europe was； over and above all this；
unfavourable to the improvement and cultivation of land； whether
carried on by the proprietor or by the farmer； first； by the
general prohibition of the exportation of corn without a special
licence； which seems to have been a very universal regulation；
and secondly； by the restraints which were laid upon the inland
commerce； not only of corn； but of almost every other part of the
produce of the farm by the absurd laws against engrossers；
regrators； and forestallers； and by the privileges of fairs and
markets。 It has already been observed in what manner the
prohibition of the exportation of corn； together with some
encouragement given to the importation of foreign corn；
obstructed the cultivation of ancient Italy； naturally the most
fertile country in Europe； and at that time the seat of the
greatest empire in the world。 To what degree such restraints upon
the inland commerce of this commodity； joined to the general
prohibition of exportation； must have discouraged the cultivation
of countries less fertile and less favourably circumstanced； it
is not perhaps very easy to imagine。
CHAPTER III
Of the Rise and Progress of Cities and Towns after the Fall of
the Roman Empire
THE inhabitants of cities and towns were； after the fall of
the Roman empire； not more favoured than those of the country。
They consisted； indeed； of a very different order of people from
the first inhabitants of the ancient republics of Greece and
Italy。 These last were composed chiefly of the proprietors of
lands； among whom the public territory was originally divided；
and who found it convenient to build their houses in the
neighbourhood of one another； and to surround them with a wall；
for the sake of common defence。 After the fall of the Roman
empire； on the contrary； the proprietors of land seem generally
to have lived in fortified castles on their own estates； and in
the midst of their own tenants and dependants。 The towns were
chiefly inhabited by tradesmen and mechanics； who seem in those
days to have been of servile； or very nearly of servile
condition。 The privileges which we find granted by ancient
charters to the inhabitants of some of the principal towns in
Europe sufficiently show what they were before those grants。 The
people to whom it is granted as a privilege that they might give
away their own daughters in marriage without the consent of their
lord； that upon their death their own children； and not their
lord； should succeed to their goods； and that they might dispose
of their own effects by will； must； before those grants； have
been either altogether or very nearly in the same state of
villanage with the occupiers of land in the country。
They seem； indeed； to have been a very poor； mean set of
people； who used to travel about with their goods from place to
place； and from fair to fair； like the hawkers and pedlars of the
present times。 In all the different countries of Europe then； in
the same manner as in several of the Tartar governments of Asia
at present； taxes used to be levied upon th