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of disposing of him in marriage； provided it was in a manner not
unsuitable to his rank。 But though this institution necessarily
tended to strengthen the authority of the king； and to weaken
that of the great proprietors； it could not do either
sufficiently for establishing order and good government among the
inhabitants of the country； because it could not alter
sufficiently that state of property and manners from which the
disorders arose。 The authority of government still continued to
be； as before； too weak in the head and too strong in the
inferior members； and the excessive strength of the inferior
members was the cause of the weakness of the head。 After the
institution of feudal subordination； the king was as incapable of
restraining the violence of the great lords as before。 They still
continued to make war according to their own discretion； almost
continually upon one another； and very frequently upon the king；
and the open country still continued to be a scene of violence；
rapine； and disorder。
But what all the violence of the feudal institutions could
never have effected； the silent and insensible operation of
foreign commerce and manufactures gradually brought about。 These
gradually furnished the great proprietors with something for
which they could exchange the whole surplus produce of their
lands； and which they could consume themselves without sharing it
either with tenants or retainers。 All for ourselves and nothing
for other people； seems； in every age of the world； to have been
the vile maxim of the masters of mankind。 As soon； therefore； as
they could find a method of consuming the whole value of their
rents themselves； they had no disposition to share them with any
other persons。 For a pair of diamond buckles； perhaps； or for
something as frivolous and useless； they exchanged the
maintenance； or what is the same thing； the price of the
maintenance of a thousand men for a year； and with it the whole
weight and authority which it could give them。 The buckles；
however； were to be all their own； and no other human creature
was to have any share of them； whereas in the more ancient method
of expense they must have shared with at least a thousand people。
With the judges that were to determine the preference this
difference was perfectly decisive； and thus； for the
gratification of the most childish； the meanest； and the most
sordid of all vanities； they gradually bartered their whole power
and authority。
In a country where there is no foreign commerce； nor any of
the finer manufactures； a man of ten thousand a year cannot well
employ his revenue in any other way than in maintaining； perhaps；
a thousand families； who are all of them necessarily at his
command。 In the present state of Europe； a man of ten thousand a
year can spend his whole revenue； and he generally does so；
without directly maintaining twenty people； or being able to
command more than ten footmen not worth the commanding。
Indirectly； perhaps； he maintains as great or even a greater
number of people than he could have done by the ancient method of
expense。 For though the quantity of precious productions for
which he exchanges his whole revenue be very small； the number of
workmen employed in collecting and preparing it must necessarily
have been very great。 Its great price generally arises from the
wages of their labour； and the profits of all their immediate
employers。 By paying that price he indirectly pays all those
wages and profits and thus indirectly contributes to the
maintenance of all the workmen and their employers。 He generally
contributes； however； but a very small proportion to that of
each； to very few perhaps a tenth； to many not a hundredth； and
to some not a thousandth； nor even a ten…thousandth part of their
whole annual maintenance。 Though he contributes； therefore； to
the maintenance of them all； they are all more or less
independent of him； because generally they can all be maintained
without him。
When the great proprietors of land spend their rents in
maintaining their tenants and retainers； each of them maintains
entirely all his own tenants and all his own retainers。 But when
they spend them in maintaining tradesmen and artificers； they
may； all of them taken together； perhaps； maintain as great； or；
on account of the waste which attends rustic hospitality； a
greater number of people than before。 Each of them； however；
taken singly； contributes often but a very small share to the
maintenance of any individual of this greater number。 Each
tradesman or artificer derives his subsistence from the
employment； not of one； but of a hundred or a thousand different
customers。 Though in some measure obliged to them all； therefore；
he is not absolutely dependent upon any one of them。
The personal expense of the great proprietors having in this
manner gradually increased； it was impossible that the number of
their retainers should not as gradually diminish till they were
at last dismissed altogether。 The same cause gradually led them
to dismiss the unnecessary part of their tenants。 Farms were
enlarged； and the occupiers of land； notwithstanding the
complaints of depopulation； reduced to the number necessary for
cultivating it； according to the imperfect state of cultivation
and improvement in those times。 By the removal of the unnecessary
mouths； and by exacting from the farmer the full value of the
farm； a greater surplus； or what is the same thing； the price of
a greater surplus； was obtained for the proprietor； which the
merchants and manufacturers soon furnished him with a method of
spending upon his own person in the same manner as he had done
the rest。 The same cause continuing to operate； he was desirous
to raise his rents above what his lands； in the actual state of
their improvement； could afford。 His tenants could agree to this
upon one condition only； that they should be secured in their
possession for such a term of years as might give them time to
recover with profit whatever they should lay out in the further
improvement of the land。 The expensive vanity of the landlord
made him willing to accept of this condition； and hence the
origin of long leases。
Even a tenant at will； who pays the full value of the land；
is not altogether dependent upon the landlord。 The pecuniary
advantages which they receive from one another are mutual and
equal； and such a tenant will expose neither his life nor his
fortune in the service of the proprietor。 But if he has a lease
for a long term of years； he is altogether independent； and his
landlord must not expect from him the most trifling service
beyond what is either expressly stipulated in the lease or
imposed upon him by the common and known law of the country。
The tenants having in this manner become independent； and
the retainers being dismissed； the great proprietors were no
longer capable of interrupting the regular execution of justice
or of disturbing the peace of the country。 Having sold their
birthright； not like Esau for a mess o