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a mass of experience； accumulated in so short a time。
On each page of this great drama we have found numerous
applications of the principles expounded in my various works；
concerning the transitory mentality of crowds and the permanent
soul of the peoples； the action of beliefs； the influence of
mystic； affective； and collective elements； and the conflict
between the various forms of logic。
The Revolutionary Assemblies illustrate all the known laws of the
psychology of crowds。 Impulsive and timid； they are dominated by
a small number of leaders； and usually act in a sense contrary to
the wishes of their individual members。
The Royalist Constituent Assembly destroyed an ancient monarchy；
the humanitarian Legislative Assembly allowed the massacres of
September。 The same pacific body led France into the most
formidable campaigns。
There were similar contradictions during the Convention。 The
immense majority of its members abhorred violence。 Sentimental
philosophers； they exalted equality； fraternity； and liberty； yet
ended by exerting the most terrible despotism。
The same contradictions were visible during the Directory。
Extremely moderate in their intentions at the outset； the
Assemblies were continually effecting bloodthirsty coups
d'etat。 They wished to re…establish religious peace； and
finally sent thousands of priests into imprisonment。 They wished
to repair the ruins which covered France； and only succeeded in
adding to them。
Thus there was always a complete contradiction between the
individual wills of the men of the revolutionary period and the
deeds of the Assemblies of which they were units。
The truth is that they obeyed invisible forces of which they were
not the masters。 Believing that they acted in the name of pure
reason； they were really subject to mystic； affective； and
collective influences； incomprehensible to them； and which we are
only to…day beginning to understand。
Intelligence has progressed in the course of the ages； and has
opened a marvellous outlook to man； although his character； the
real foundation of his mind； and the sure motive of his actions；
has scarcely changed。 Overthrown one moment； it reappears the
next。 Human nature must be accepted as it is。
The founders of the Revolution did not resign themselves to the
facts of human nature。 For the first time in the history
of humanity they attempted to transform men and society in the
name of reason。
Never was any undertaking commenced with such chances of success。
The theorists； who claimed to effect it； had a power in their
hands greater than that of any despot。
Yet； despite this power； despite the success of the armies；
despite Draconian laws and repeated coups d'etat； the
Revolution merely heaped ruin upon ruin； and ended in a
dictatorship。
Such an attempt was not useless； since experience is necessary to
the education of the peoples。 Without the Revolution it would
have been difficult to prove that pure reason does not enable us
to change human nature； and； consequently； that no society can be
rebuilt by the will of legislators； however absolute their power。
Commenced by the middle classes for their own profit； the
Revolution speedily became a popular movement； and at the same
time a struggle of the instinctive against the rational； a revolt
against all the constraints which make civilisation out of
barbarism。 It was by relying on the principle of popular
sovereignty that the reformers attempted to impose their
doctrines。 Guided by leaders； the people intervened incessantly
in the deliberations of the Assemblies； and committed the most
sanguinary acts of violence。
The history of the multitudes during the Revolution is eminently
instructive。 It shows the error of the politicians who attribute
all the virtues to the popular soul。
The facts of the Revolution teach us； on the contrary； that a
people freed from social constraints； the foundations of
civilisation； and abandoned to its instinctive impulses； speedily
relapses into its ancestral savagery。 Every popular revolution
which succeeds in triumphing is a temporary return to barbarism。
If the Commune of 1871 had lasted； it would have repeated the
Terror。 Not having the power to kill so many people； it had to
confine itself to burning the principal monuments of the capital。
The Revolution represents the conflict of psychological forces
liberated from the bonds whose function it is to restrain them。
Popular instincts； Jacobin beliefs； ancestral influences；
appetites； and passions unloosed； all these various influences
engaged in a furious mutual conflict for the space of ten years；
during which time they soaked France in blood and covered the
land with ruins。
Seen from a distance； this seems to be the whole upshot of the
Revolution。 There was nothing homogeneous about it。 One must
resort to analysis before one can understand and grasp the great
drama and display the impulses which continually actuated its
heroes。 In normal times we are guided by the various forms of
logicrational； affective； collective； and mysticwhich more or
less perfectly balance one another。 During seasons of upheaval
they enter into conflict； and man is no longer himself。
We have by no means undervalued in this work the importance of
certain acquisitions of the Revolution in respect of the rights
of the people。 But with many other historians； we are
forced to admit that the prize gained at the cost of such ruin
and bloodshed would have been obtained at a later date without
effort； by the mere progress of civilisation。 For a few years
gained； what a load of material disaster； what moral
disintegration！ We are still suffering as a result of the
latter。 These brutal pages in the book of history will take long
to efface： they are not effaced as yet。
Our young men of to…day seem to prefer action to thought。
Disdaining the sterile dissertations of the philosophers； they
take no interest in vain speculation concerning matters whose
essential nature remains unknown。
Action is certainly an excellent thing； and all real progress is
a result of action； but it is only useful when properly directed。
The men of the Revolution were assuredly men of action； yet the
illusions which they accepted as guides led them to disaster。
Action is always hurtful when； despising realities； it professes
violently to change the course of events。 One cannot experiment
with society as with apparatus in a laboratory。 Our political
upheavals show us what such social errors may cost。
Although the lesson of the Revolution was extremely categorical；
many unpractical spirits； hallucinated by their dreams； are
hoping to recommence it。 Socialism； the modern synthesis of this
hope； would be a regression to lower forms of evolution； for it
would paralyse the greatest sources of our activity。 By
repl