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from the law with such contempt of the general interest？ The
very degree of perfection to which we have brought our laws； our
social organisation； the mutual relation between the various
professions and industries； exposes us more than our predecessors
in ruder ages to the grave peril which at present threatens
society。 。 。 。 We are witnesses at the present moment of the
first manifestation of the power of elements which； if we are not
heedful； will submerge the whole of society。 。 。 。 The attitude
of the Government in yielding to the injunction of the miners
gives some appearance of reality to the victory of those who are
pitting themselves against society。''
3。 Why certain modern Democratic Governments are gradually
being transformed into Governments by Administrative Castes。
Anarchy and the social conflicts resulting from democratic ideas
are to…day impelling some Governments towards an unforeseen
course of evolution which will end by leaving them only a nominal
power。 This development； of which I shall briefly denote the
effects； is effected spontaneously under the stress of those
imperious necessities which are still the chief controlling power
of events。
The Governments of democratic countries to…day consist of the
representatives elected by universal suffrage。 They vote laws；
and appoint and dismiss ministers chosen from themselves； and
provisionally entrusted with the executive power。 These
ministers are naturally often replaced； since a vote will do
it。 Those who follow them； belonging to a different
party； will govern according to different principles。
It might at first seem that a country thus pulled to and fro by
various influences could have no continuity or stability。 But in
spite of all these conditions of instability a democratic
Government like that of France works with fair regularity。 How
explain such a phenomenon？
Its interpretation； which is very simple； results from the fact
that the ministers who have the appearance of governing really
govern the country only to a very limited extent。 Strictly
limited and circumscribed； their power is exercised principally
in speeches which are hardly noticed and in a few inorganic
measures。
But behind the superficial authority of ministers； without force
or duration； the playthings of every demand of the politician； an
anonymous power is secretly at work whose might is continually
increasing the administrations。 Possessing traditions； a
hierarchy； and continuity； they are a power against which； as the
ministers quickly realise； they are incapable of struggling。＇14＇
Responsibility is so divided in the administrative machine that a
minister may never find himself opposed by any person of
importance。 His momentary impulses are checked by a network of
regulations； customs； and decrees； which are continually quoted
to him； and which he knows so little that he dare not infringe
them。
＇14＇ The impotence of ministers in their own departments has been
well described by one of them； M。 Cruppi； in a recent book。 The
most ardent wishes of the minister being immediately paralysed by
his department； he promptly ceases to struggle against it。
This diminution of the power of democratic Governments can
only develop。 One of the most constant laws of history is that
of which I have already spoken： Immediately any one class
becomes preponderantnobles； clergy； army； or the peopleit
speedily tends to enslave others。 Such were the Roman armies；
which finally appointed and overthrew the emperors； such were the
clergy； against whom the kings of old could hardly struggle； such
were the States General； which at the moment of Revolution
speedily absorbed all the powers of government； and supplanted
the monarchy。
The caste of functionaries is destined to furnish a fresh proof
of the truth of this law。 Preponderant already； they are
beginning to speak loudly； to make threats； and even to indulge
in strikes； such as that of the postmen； which was quickly
followed by that of the Government railway employees。 The
administrative power thus forms a little State within the State；
and if its present rate of revolution continues it will soon
constitute the only power in the State。 Under a Socialist
Government there would be no other power。 All our revolutions
would then have resulted in stripping the king of his powers and
his throne in order to bestow them upon the irresponsible；
anonymous and despotic class of Government clerks。
To foresee the issue of all the conflicts which threaten to cloud
the future is impossible。 We must steer clear of pessimism as of
optimism； all we can say is that necessity will always finally
bring things to an equilibrium。 The world pursues its way
without bothering itself with our speeches； and sooner or later
we manage to adapt ourselves to the variations of our
environment。 The difficulty is to do so without too much
friction； and above all to resist the chimerical conceptions of
dreamers。 Always powerless to re…organise the world； they have
often contrived to upset it。
Athens； Rome； Florence； and many other cities which formerly
shone in history； were victims of these terrible theorists。 The
results of their influence has always been the sameanarchy；
dictatorship； and decadence。
But such lessons will not affect the numerous Catilines of the
present day。 They do not yet see that the movements unchained by
their ambitions threaten to submerge them。 All these Utopians
have awakened impossible hopes in the mind of the crowd； excited
their appetites； and sapped the dykes which have been slowly
erected during the centuries to restrain them。
The struggle of the blind multitudes against the elect is one of
the continuous facts of history； and the triumph of popular
sovereignties without counterpoise has already marked the end of
more than one civilisation。 The elect create； the plebs
destroys。 As soon as the first lose their hold the latter begins
its precious work。
The great civilisations have only prospered by dominating their
lower elements。 It is not only in Greece that anarchy；
dictatorship； invasion； and； finally； the loss of independence
has resulted from the despotism of a democracy。 Individual
tyranny is always born of collective tyranny。 It ended the first
cycle of the greatness of Rome； the Barbarians achieved the
second。
CONCLUSIONS
The principal revolutions of history have been studied in this
volume。 But we have dealt more especially with the most
important of allthat which for more than twenty years
overwhelmed all Europe； and whose echoes are still to be heard。
The French Revolution is an inexhaustible mine of psychological
documents。 No period of the life of humanity has presented such
a mass of experience； accumulated in so short a time。
On each page of this great drama we have fo