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impression on the public； and cannot serve the interests of
politicians at elections。 These latter care nothing for such
matters； and permit the accumulation； in the countries subject to
their influence； of the little successive disorganisations which
finally result in great downfalls。
5。 Social Distinctions in Democracies and Democratic Ideas in
Various Countries。
When men were divided into castes and differentiated chiefly by
birth； social distinctions were generally accepted as the
consequences of an unavoidable natural law。
As soon as the old social divisions were destroyed the
distinctions of the classes appeared artificial； and for that
reason ceased to be tolerated。
The necessity of equality being theoretical； we have seen among
democratic peoples the rapid development of artificial
inequalities； permitting their possessors to make for themselves
a plainly visible supremacy。 Never was the thirst for titles and
decorations so general as to…day。
In really democratic countries； such as the United States； titles
and decorations do not exert much influence； and fortune alone
creates distinctions。 It is only by exception that we see
wealthy young American girls allying themselves to the old names
of the European aristocracy。 They are then instinctively
employing the only means which will permit a young race to
acquire a past that will establish its moral framework。
But in a general fashion the aristocracy that we see springing up
in America is by no means founded on titles and decorations。
Purely financial； it does not provoke much jealousy； because
every one hopes one day to form part of it。
When； in his book on democracy in America； Toqueville spoke of
the general aspiration towards equality he did not realise that
the prophesied equality would end in the classification of men
founded exclusively on the number of dollars possessed by them。
No other exists in the United States； and it will doubtless one
day be the same in Europe。
At present we cannot possibly regard France as a democratic
country save on paper； and here we feel the necessity； already
referred to； of examining the various ideas which in different
countries are expressed by the word ‘‘democracy。''
Of truly democratic nations we can practically mention only
England and the United States。 There； democracy occurs in
different forms； but the same principles are observednotably； a
perfect toleration of all opinions。 Religious persecutions are
unknown。 Real superiority easily reveals itself in the various
professions which any one can enter at any age if he possesses
the necessary capacity。 There is no barrier to individual
effort。
In such countries men believe themselves equal because all have
the idea that they are free to attain the same position。 The
workman knows he can become foreman； and then engineer。 Forced
to begin on the lower rungs of the ladder instead of high up the
scale； as in France； the engineer does not regard himself as made
of different stuff to the rest of mankind。 It is the same in all
professions。 This is why the class hatred； so intense in Europe；
is so little developed in England and America。
In France the democracy is practically non…existent save in
speeches。 A system of competitions and examinations； which must
be worked through in youth； firmly closes the door upon the
liberal professions； and creates inimical and separate classes。
The Latin democracies are therefore purely theoretical。 The
absolutism of the State has replaced monarchical absolutism； but
it is no less severe。 The aristocracy of fortune has replaced
that of birth； and its privileges are no less considerable。
Monarchies and democracies differ far more in form than in
substance。 It is only the variable mentality of men that varies
their effects。 All the discussions as to various systems of
government are really of no interest； for these have no special
virtue of themselves。 Their value will always depend on that of
the people governed。 A people effects great and rapid progress
when it discovers that it is the sum of the personal efforts of
each individual and not the system of government that determines
the rank of a nation in the world。
CHAPTER III
THE NEW FORMS OF DEMOCRATIC BELIEF
1。 The Conflict between Capital and Labour。
While our legislators are reforming and legislating at hazard；
the natural evolution of the world is slowly pursuing its course。
New interests arise； the economic competition between nation and
nation increases in severity； the working…classes are bestirring
themselves； and on all sides we see the birth of formidable
problems which the harangues of the politicians will never
resolve。
Among these new problems one of the most complicated will be the
problem of the conflict between labour and capital。 It is
becoming acute even in such a country of tradition as England。
Workingmen are ceasing to respect the collective contracts which
formerly constituted their charter； strikes are declared for
insignificant motives； and unemployment and pauperism are
attaining disquieting proportions。
In America these strikes would finally have affected all
industries but that the very excess of the evil created a remedy。
During the last ten years the industrial leaders have organised
great employers' federations； which have become powerful enough
to force the workers to submit to arbitration。
The labour question is complicated in France by the
intervention of numerous foreign workers； which the stagnation of
our population has rendered necessary。＇13＇ This stagnation will
also make it difficult for France to contend with her rivals；
whose soil will soon no longer be able to nourish its
inhabitants； who； following one of the oldest laws of history；
will necessarily invade the less densely peopled countries。
＇13＇ Population of the Great Powers：
1789。 1906。
Russia 。。。 。。。 28；000；000 129；000；000
Germany 。。。 。。。 28；000；000 57；000；000
Austria 。。。 。。。 18；000；000 44；000；000
England 。。。 。。。 12；000；000 40；000；000
France 。。。 。。。 26；000；000 39；000；000
These conflicts between the workers and employers of the same
nation will be rendered still more acute by the increasing
economic struggle between the Asiatics； whose needs are small；
and who can therefore produce manufactured articles at very low
prices； and the Europeans； whose needs are many。 For twenty…five
years I have laid stress upon this point。 General Hamilton； ex…
military attache to the Japanese army； who foresaw the
Japanese victories long before the outbreak of hostilities；
writes as follows in an essay translated by General Langlois：
‘‘The Chinaman； such as I have seen him in Manchuria； is capable
of destroying the present type of worker of the white races。 He
will drive him of