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France has seen during the past century having been explained； it
will now suffice to present a summary picture of these successive
revolutions。
The sovereigns in coalition having defeated Napoleon； they
reduced France to her former limits； and placed Louis XVIII。； the
only possible sovereign； on the throne。
By a special charter the new king accepted the position of a
constitutional monarch under a representative system of
government。 He recognised all the conquests of the Revolution：
the civil Code； equality before the law； liberty of worship；
irrevocability of the sale of national property； &c。 The right
of suffrage； however； was limited to those paying a certain
amount in taxes。
This liberal Constitution was opposed by the ultra…royalists。
Returned emigres； they wanted the restitution of the national
property； and the re…establishment of their ancient privileges。
Fearing that such a reaction might cause a new revolution； Louis
XVIII。 was reduced to dissolving the Chamber。 The election
having returned moderate deputies； he was able to continue to
govern with the same principles； understanding very well that any
attempt to govern the French by the ancien regime would be
enough to provoke a general rebellion。
Unfortunately； his death； in 1824； placed Charles X。； formerly
Comte d'Artois； on the throne。 Extremely narrow； incapable of
understanding the new world which surrounded him； and boasting
that he had not modified his ideas since 1789； he prepared a
series of reactionary lawsa law by which an indemnity of forty
millions sterling was to be paid to emigres； a law of sacrilege；
and laws establishing the rights of primogeniture； the
preponderance of the clergy； &c。
The majority of the deputies showing themselves daily more
opposed to his projects； in 1830 he enacted Ordinances dissolving
the Chamber； suppressing the liberty of the Press； and preparing
for the restoration of the ancien regime。
The effect was immediate。 This autocratic action provoked a
coalition of the leaders of all parties。 Republicans；
Bonapartists； Liberals； Royalistsall united in order to raise
the Parisian populace。 Four days after the publication of the
Ordinances the insurgents were masters of the capital； and
Charles X。 fled to England。
The leaders of the movementThiers； Casimir…Perier； La Fayette；
&c。summoned to Paris Louis…Philippe； of whose existence the
people were scarcely aware； and declared him king of the French。
Between the indifference of the people and the hostility of the
nobles； who had remained faithful to the legitimate dynasty； the
new king relied chiefly upon the bourgeoisie。 An electoral law
having reduced the electors to less than 200；000； this class
played an exclusive part in the government。
The situation of the sovereign was not easy。 He had to struggle
simultaneously against the legitimist supporters of Henry
V。 the grandson of Charles X。； and the Bonapartists； who
recognised as their head Louis…Napoleon； the Emperor's nephew；
and finally against the republicans。
By means of their secret societies； analogous to the clubs of the
Revolution； the latter provoked numerous riots at various
intervals between 1830 and 1840； but these were easily repressed。
The clericals and legitimists； on their side； did not cease their
intrigues。 The Duchess de Berry； the mother of Henry V。； tried
in vain to raise the Vendee。 As to the clergy； their demands
finally made them so intolerable that an insurrection broke out；
in the course of which the palace of the archbishop of Paris was
sacked。
The republicans as a party were not very dangerous； as the
Chamber sided with the king in the struggle against them。 The
minister Guizot； who advocated a strong central power； declared
that two things were indispensable to government‘‘reason and
cannon。'' The famous statesman was surely somewhat deluded as to
the necessity or efficacy of reason。
Despite this strong central power； which in reality was not
strong； the republicans； and above all the Socialists； continued
to agitate。 One of the most influential； Louis Blanc； claimed
that it was the duty of the Government to procure work for every
citizen。 The Catholic party； led by Lacordaire and Montalembert；
united with the Socialistsas to…day in Belgiumto oppose the
Government。
A campaign in favour of electoral reform ended in 1848 in a fresh
riot； which unexpectedly overthrew Louis…Philippe。
His fall was far less justifiable than that of Charles X。 There
was little with which he could be reproached。 Doubtless he was
suspicious of universal suffrage； but the French Revolution had
more than once been quite suspicious of it。 Louis…Philippe not
being； like the Directory； an absolute ruler； could not； as the
latter had done； annul unfavourable elections。
A provisional Government was installed in the Hotel de Ville；
to replace the fallen monarchy。 It proclaimed the Republic；
established universal suffrage； and decreed that the people
should proceed to the election of a National Assembly of nine
hundred members。
From the first days of its existence the new Government found
itself the victim of socialistic manoeuvres and riots。
The psychological phenomena observed during the first Revolution
were now to be witnessed again。 Clubs were formed； whose leaders
sent the people from time to time against the Assembly； for
reasons which were generally quite devoid of common sensefor
example； to force the Government to support an insurrection in
Poland； &c。
In the hope of satisfying the Socialists； every day more noisy
and exigent； the Assembly organised national workshops； in which
the workers were occupied in various forms of labour。 In these
100；000 men cost the State more than L40；000 weekly。 Their
claim to receive pay without working for it forced the Assembly
to close the workshops。
This measure was the origin of a formidable insurrection； 50；000
workers revolting。 The Assembly； terrified； confided all
the executive powers to General Cavaignac。 There was a four…days
battle with the insurgents； during which three generals and the
Archbishop of Paris were killed； 3；000 prisoners were deported by
the Assembly to Algeria； and revolutionary Socialism was
annihilated for a space of fifty years。
These events brought Government stock down from 116 to 50 francs。
Business was at a standstill。 The peasants； who thought
themselves threatened by the Socialists； and the bourgeois；
whose taxes the Assembly had increased by half； turned against
the Republic； and when Louis…Napoleon promised to re…establish
order he found himself welcomed with enthusiasm。 A candidate for
the position of President of the Republic； who according to the
new Constitution must be elected by the whole body of citizens；
he was chosen by 5；500；000 votes。
Very soon at odds with the Chamber； the prince de