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other is subjected to the same influences； but gives them a
revolutionary form。
From the commencement of the Revolution the struggle between
contrary mentalities was plainly manifested。 We have seen that
in spite of the most frightful repression insurrections and
conspiracies lasted until the end of the Directory。 They proved
that the traditions of the past had left profound roots in the
popular soul。 At a certain moment sixty departments were in
revolt against the new Government； and were only repressed by
repeated massacres on a vast scale。
To establish some sort of compromise between the ancien
regime and the new ideals was the most difficult of the
problems which Bonaparte had to resolve。 He had to discover
institutions which would suit the two mentalities into which
France was divided。 He succeeded； as we have seen； by
conciliatory measures； and also by dressing very ancient things
in new names。
His reign was one of those rare periods of French history during
which the mental unity of France was complete。
This unity could not outlive him。 On the morrow of his fall all
the old parties reappeared； and have survived until the present
day。 Some attach themselves to traditional influences； others
violently reject them。
If this long conflict had been between believers and the
indifferent； it could not have lasted； for indifference is
always tolerant； but the struggle was really between two
different beliefs。 The lay Church very soon assumed a religious
aspect； and its pretended rationalism has become； especially in
recent years； a barely attenuated form of the narrowest clerical
spirit。 Now； we have shown that no conciliation is possible
between dissimilar religious beliefs。 The clericals when in
power could not therefore show themselves more tolerant towards
freethinkers than these latter are to…day toward the clericals。
These divisions； determined by differences of belief； were
complicated by the addition of the political conceptions derived
from those beliefs。
Many simple souls have for long believed that the real history of
France began with the year I。 of the Republic。 This rudimentary
conception is at last dying out。 Even the most rigid
revolutionaries renounce it；＇10＇ and are quite willing to
recognise that the past was something better than an epoch of
black barbarism dominated by low superstitions。
＇10＇ We may judge of the recent evolution of ideas upon this
point by the following passage from a speech by M。 Jaures；
delivered in the Chamber of Deputies： ‘‘The greatness of to…day
is built of the efforts of past centuries。 France is not
contained in a day nor in an epoch； but in the succession of all
days； all periods； all her twilights and all her dawns。''
The religious origin of most of the political beliefs held in
France inspires their adepts with an inextinguishable hatred
which always strikes foreigners with amazement。
‘‘Nothing is more obvious； nothing is more certain；'' writes Mr。
Barret…Wendell； in his book on France； ‘‘than this fact： that not
only have the royalists； revolutionaries； and Bonapartists
always been mortally opposed to one another； but that； owing to
the passionate ardour of the French character； they have always
entertained a profound intellectual horror for one another。 Men
who believe themselves in possession of the truth cannot refrain
from affirming that those who do not think with them are
instruments of error。
‘‘Each party will gravely inform you that the advocates of the
adverse cause are afflicted by a dense stupidity or are
consciously dishonest。 Yet when you meet these latter； who will
say exactly the same things as their detractors； you cannot but
recognise； in all good faith； that they are neither stupid nor
dishonest。''
This reciprocal execration of the believers of each party has
always facilitated the overthrow of Governments and ministers in
France。 The parties in the minority will never refuse to ally
themselves against the triumphant party。 We know that a great
number of revolutionary Socialists have been elected to the
present Chamber only by the aid of the monarchists； who are still
as unintelligent as they were at the time of the Revolution。
Our religious and political differences do not constitute the
only cause of dissension in France。 They are held by men
possessing that particular mentality which I have already
described under the name of the revolutionary mentality。 We have
seen that each period always presents a certain number of
individuals ready to revolt against the established order of
things； whatever that may be； even though it may realise all
their desires。
The intolerance of the parties in France； and their desire to
seize upon power； are further favoured by the conviction； so
prevalent under the Revolution； that societies can be remade by
means of laws。 The modern State； whatever its leader； has
inherited in the eyes of the multitudes and their leaders the
mystic power attributed to the ancient kings； when these latter
were regarded as an incarnation of the Divine will。 Not only the
people is inspired by this confidence in the power of Government；
all our legislators entertain it also。＇11＇
＇11＇ After the publication of an article of mine concerning
legislative illusions； I received from one of our most eminent
politicians； M。 Boudenot the senator； a letter from which I
extract the following passage： ‘‘Twenty years passed in the
Chamber and the Senate have shown me how right you are。 How many
times I have heard my colleagues say： ‘The Government ought to
prevent this； order that；' &c。 What would you have？ there are
fourteen centuries of monarchical atavism in our blood。''
Legislating always； politicians never realise that as
institutions are effects； and not causes； they have no virtue in
themselves。 Heirs to the great revolutionary illusion； they do
not see that man is created by a past whose foundations we are
powerless to reshape。
The conflict between the principles dividing France； which has
lasted more than a century； will doubtless continue for a long
time yet； and no one can foresee what fresh upheavals it may
engender。 No doubt if before our era the Athenians could have
divined that their social dissensions would have led to the
enslavement of Greece； they would have renounced them； but how
could they have foreseen as much？ M。 Guiraud justly writes： ‘‘A
generation of men very rarely realises the task which it
is accomplishing。 It is preparing for the future； but this
future is often the contrary of what it wishes。''
2。 Summary of a Century's Revolutionary Movement in France。
The psychological causes of the revolutionary movements which
France has seen during the past century having been explained； it
will now suffice to present a summary picture of these success