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true author of the coup d'etat was the Government itself； with
the complicity of all France。
4。 Causes of the Duration of the Revolution。
If we limit the Revolution to the time necessary for the conquest
of its fundamental principlesequality before the law； free
access to public functions； popular sovereignty； control of
expenditures； &c。we may say that it lasted only a few months。
Towards the middle of 1789 all this was accomplished； and during
the years that followed nothing was added to it； yet the
Revolution lasted much longer。
Confining the duration to the dates admitted by the official
historians； we see it persisting until the advent of Bonaparte； a
space of some ten years。
Why did this period of disorganisation and violence follow the
establishment of the new principles？ We need not seek the cause
in the foreign war； which might on several occasions have been
terminated； thanks to the divisions of the allies and the
constant victories of the French； neither must we look for it in
the sympathy of Frenchmen for the revolutionary Government。
Never was rule more cordially hated and despised than that of the
Assemblies。 By its revolts as well as by its repeated votes a
great part of the nation displayed the horror with which it
regarded the system。
This last point； the aversion of France for the revolutionary
regime； so long misunderstood； has been well displayed by
recent historians。 The author of the last book published on the
Revolution； M。 Madelin； has well summarised their opinion in the
following words：
‘‘As early as 1793 a party by no means numerous had seized upon
France； the Revolution； and the Republic。 Now； three…quarters of
France longed for the Revolution to be checked； or rather
delivered from its odious exploiters； but these held the unhappy
country by a thousand means。 。 。 。 As the Terror was essential
to them if they were to rule； they struck at whomsoever seemed at
any given moment to be opposed to the Terror； were they the best
servants of the Revolution。''
Up to the end of the Directory the government was exercised by
Jacobins； who merely desired to retain； along with the supreme
power； the riches they had accumulated by murder and pillage； and
were ready to surrender France to any one who would guarantee
them free possession of these。 That they negotiated the coup
d'etat of Brumaire with Napoleon was simply to the fact that
they had not been able to realise their wishes with regard to
Louis XVIII。
But how explain the fact that a Government so tyrannical and so
dishonoured was able to survive for so many years？
It was not merely because the revolutionary religion still
survived in men's minds； nor because it was forced on them by
means of persecution and bloodshed； but especially； as I have
already stated； on account of the great interest which a large
portion of the population had in maintaining it。
This point is fundamental。 If the Revolution had remained a
theoretical religion； it would probably have been of short
duration。 But the belief which had just been founded very
quickly emerged from the domain of pure theory。
The Revolution did not confine itself to despoiling the monarchy；
the nobility； and the clergy of their powers of government。 In
throwing into the hands of the bourgeoisie and the large
numbers of peasantry the wealth and the employments of the old
privileged classes it had at the same stroke turned them into
obstinate supporters of the revolutionary system。 All those who
had acquired the property of which the nobles and clergy had been
despoiled had obtained lands and chateaux at low prices； and
were terrified lest the restoration of the monarchy should force
them to make general restitution。
It was largely for these reasons that a Government which； at any
normal period； would never have been endured； was able to survive
until a master should re…establish order； while promising to
maintain not only the moral but also the material conquests of
the Revolution。 Bonaparte realised these anxieties； and was
promptly and enthusiastically welcomed。 Material conquests which
were still contestable and theoretical principles which were
still fragile were by him incorporated in institutions and the
laws。 It is an error to say that the Revolution terminated with
his advent。 Far from destroying it； he ratified and consolidated
it。
CHAPTER II
THE RESTORATION OF ORDER。 THE CONSULAR REPUBLIC
1。 How the Work of the Revolution was Confirmed by the
Consulate。
The history of the Consulate is as rich as the preceding period
in psychological material。 In the first place it shows us that
the work of a powerful individual is superior to that of a
collectivity。 Bonaparte immediately replaced the bloody anarchy
in which the Republic had for ten years been writhing by a period
of order。 That which none of the four Assemblies of the
Revolution had been able to realise； despite the most violent
oppression； a single man accomplished in a very short space of
time。
His authority immediately put an end to all the Parisian
insurrections and the attempts at monarchical resistance； and re…
established the moral unity of France； so profoundly divided by
intense hatreds。 Bonaparte replaced an unorganised collective
despotism by a perfectly organised individual despotism。
Everyone gained thereby； for his tyranny was infinitely less
heavy than that which had been endured for ten long years。 We
must suppose； moreover； that it was unwelcome to very few； as it
was very soon accepted with immense enthusiasm。
We know better to…day than to repeat with the old historians that
Bonaparte overthrew the Republic。 On the contrary； he retained
of it all that could be retained； and never would have been
retained without him； by establishing all the practicable work of
the Revolutionthe abolition of privileges； equality before the
law； &c。in institutions and codes of law。 The Consular
Government continued； moreover； to call itself the Republic。
It is infinitely probable that without the Consulate a
monarchical restoration would have terminated the Directory； and
would have wiped out the greater part of the work of the
Revolution。 Let us suppose Bonaparte erased from history。 No
one； I think； will imagine that the Directory could have survived
the universal weariness of its rule。 It would certainly have
been overturned by the royalist conspiracies which were breaking
out daily； and Louis XVIII。 would probably have ascended the
throne。 Certainly he was to mount it sixteen years later； but
during this interval Bonaparte gave such force to the principles
of the Revolution； by establishing them in laws and customs； that
the restored sovereign dared not touch them； nor restore the
property of the returned emigres。
Matters would have been very different had Louis XVIII。
immed