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remained saturated with the past； and could only continue； under
other names； the traditions of the monarchy； even exaggerating
the autocracy and centralisation of the old system。 Tocqueville
had no difficulty in proving that the Revolution did little but
overturn that which was about to fall。
If in reality the Revolution destroyed but little it favoured the
fruition of certain ideas which continued thenceforth to develop。
The fraternity and liberty which it proclaimed never greatly
seduced the peoples； but equality became their gospel： the pivot
of socialism and of the entire evolution of modern democratic
ideas。 We may therefore say that the Revolution did not end with
the advent of the Empire； nor with the successive restorations
which followed it。 Secretly or in the light of day it has slowly
unrolled itself and still affects men's minds。
The study of the French Revolution to which a great part of this
book is devoted will perhaps deprive the reader of more than one
illusion； by proving to him that the books which recount the
history of the Revolution contain in reality a mass of legends
very remote from reality。
These legends will doubtless retain more life than history
itself。 Do not regret this too greatly。 It may interest a few
philosophers to know the truth； but the peoples will always
prefer dreams。 Synthetising their ideal； such dreams will always
constitute powerful motives of action。 One would lose courage
were it not sustained by false ideas； said Fontenelle。 Joan of
Arc； the Giants of the Convention； the Imperial epicall these
dazzling images of the past will always remain sources of hope in
the gloomy hours that follow defeat。 They form part of that
patrimony of illusions left us by our fathers； whose power is
often greater than that of reality。 The dream； the ideal； the
legendin a word； the unrealit is that which shapes history。
PART I
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS
BOOK I
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF REVOLUTIONS
CHAPTER I
SCIENTIFIC AND POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS
1。 Classification of Revolutions。
We generally apply the term revolution to sudden political
changes； but the expression may be employed to denote all sudden
transformations； or transformations apparently sudden； whether of
beliefs； ideas； or doctrines。
We have considered elsewhere the part played by the rational；
affective； and mystic factors in the genesis of the opinions and
beliefs which determine conduct。 We need not therefore return to
the subject here。
A revolution may finally become a belief； but it often commences
under the action of perfectly rational motives： the suppression
of crying abuses； of a detested despotic government； or an
unpopular sovereign； &c。
Although the origin of a revolution may be perfectly rational； we
must not forget that the reasons invoked in preparing for it do
not influence the crowd until they have been transformed
into sentiments。 Rational logic can point to the abuses to be
destroyed； but to move the multitude its hopes must be awakened。
This can only be effected by the action of the affective and
mystic elements which give man the power to act。 At the time of
the French Revolution； for example； rational logic； in the hands
of the philosophers； demonstrated the inconveniences of the
ancien regime； and excited the desire to change it。 Mystic
logic inspired belief in the virtues of a society created in all
its members according to certain principles。 Affective logic
unchained the passions confined by the bonds of ages and led to
the worst excesses。 Collective logic ruled the clubs and the
Assemblies and impelled their members to actions which neither
rational nor affective nor mystic logic would ever have caused
them to commit。
Whatever its origin； a revolution is not productive of results
until it has sunk into the soul of the multitude。 Then events
acquire special forms resulting from the peculiar psychology of
crowds。 Popular movements for this reason have characteristics
so pronounced that the description of one will enable us to
comprehend the others。
The multitude is； therefore； the agent of a revolution； but not
its point of departure。 The crowd represents an amorphous being
which can do nothing； and will nothing； without a head to lead
it。 It will quickly exceed the impulse once received； but it
never creates it。
The sudden political revolutions which strike the historian most
forcibly are often the least important。 The great revolutions
are those of manners and thought。 Changing the name of a
government does not transform the mentality of a people。 To
overthrow the institutions of a people is not to re…shape its
soul。
The true revolutions； those which transform the destinies of the
peoples； are most frequently accomplished so slowly that the
historians can hardly point to their beginnings。 The term
evolution is； therefore； far more appropriate than revolution。
The various elements we have enumerated as entering into the
genesis of the majority of revolutions will not suffice to
classify them。 Considering only the designed object； we will
divide them into scientific revolutions； political revolutions；
and religious revolutions。
2。 Scientific Revolutions。
Scientific revolutions are by far the most important。 Although
they attract but little attention； they are often fraught with
remote consequences； such as are not engendered by political
revolutions。 We will therefore put them first； although we
cannot study them here。
For instance； if our conceptions of the universe have profoundly
changed since the time of the Revolution； it is because
astronomical discoveries and the application of experimental
methods have revolutionised them； by demonstrating that
phenomena； instead of being conditioned by the caprices of the
gods； are ruled by invariable laws。
Such revolutions are fittingly spoken of as evolution； on account
of their slowness。 But there are others which； although of the
same order； deserve the name of revolution by reason of their
rapidity： we may instance the theories of Darwin；
overthrowing the whole science of biology in a few years； the
discoveries of Pasteur； which revolutionised medicine during the
lifetime of their author； and the theory of the dissociation of
matter； proving that the atom； formerly supposed to be eternal；
is not immune from the laws which condemn all the elements of the
universe to decline and perish。
These scientific revolutions in the domain of ideas are purely
intellectual。 Our sentiments and beliefs do not affect them。
Men submit to them without discussing them。 Their results being
controllable by experience； they escape all criticism。
3。 Political Revolutions。
Beneath and very remote from these scientific revolutions； which
generate