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（Article 1）： ‘‘Men are born and remain free and having equal
rights。'' That of 1793 goes farther； and assures us （Article 3）：
‘‘All men are equal by nature。'' That of 1795 is more modest and
says （Article 3）： ‘‘Equality consists in the law being the same
for all。'' Besides this； having mentioned rights； the third
Declaration considers it useful to speak of duties。 Its
morality is simply that of the Gospel。 Article 2 says： ‘‘All
the duties of a man and a citizen derive from these two
principles engraved on all hearts by nature： do not do unto
others that which you would not they should do unto you； do
constantly unto others the good you would wish to receive from
them。''
The essential portions of these proclamations； the only portions
which have really survived； were those relating to equality and
popular sovereignty。
Despite the weakness of its rational meaning； the part played by
the Republican device； Liberty； Equality； Fraternity； was
considerable。
This magic formula； which is still left engraven on many of our
walls until it shall be engraven on our hearts； has really
possessed the supernatural power attributed to certain words by
the old sorcerers。
Thanks to the new hopes excited by its promises； its power of
expansion was considerable。 Thousands of men lost their lives
for it。 Even in our days； when a revolution breaks out in any
part of the world； the same formula is always invoked。
Its choice was happy in the extreme。 It belongs to the category
of indefinite dream…evoking sentences； which every one is free to
interpret according to his own desires； hatreds； and hopes。 In
matters of faith the real sense of words matters very little； it
is the meaning attached to them that makes their importance。
Of the three principles of the revolutionary device； equality was
most fruitful of consequences。 We shall see in another part of
this book that it is almost the only one which still
survives； and is still productive of effects。
It was certainly not the Revolution that introduced the idea of
equality into the world。 Without going back even to the Greek
republics； we may remark that the theory of equality was taught
in the clearest fashion by Christianity and Islamism。 All men；
subjects of the one God； were equal before Him； and judged solely
according to their merits。 The dogma of the equality of souls
before God was an essential dogma with Mohammedans as well as
with Christians。
But to proclaim a principle is not enough to secure its
observation。 The Christian Church soon renounced its theoretical
equality； and the men of the Revolution only remembered it in
their speeches。
The sense of the term ‘‘equality'' varies according to the
persons using it。 It often conceals sentiments very contrary to
its real sense； and then represents the imperious need of having
no one above one； joined to the no less lively desire to feel
above others。 With the Jacobins of the Revolution； as with those
of our days； the word ‘‘equality'' simply involves a jealous
hatred of all superiority。 To efface superiority； such men
pretend to unify manners； customs； and situations。 All
despotisms but that exercised by themselves seem odious。
Not being able to avoid the natural inequalities； they deny them。
The second Declaration of Rights； that of 1793； affirms； contrary
to the evidence； that ‘‘all men are equal by nature。''
It would seem that in many of the men of the Revolution
the ardent desire for equality merely concealed an intense need
of inequalities。 Napoleon was obliged to re…establish titles of
nobility and decorations for their benefit。 Having shown that it
was among the most rabid revolutionists that he found the most
docile instruments of domination； Taine continues：
‘‘Suddenly； through all their preaching of liberty and equality；
appeared their authoritative instincts； their need of commanding；
even as subordinates； and also； in most cases； an appetite for
money or for pleasure。 Between the delegate of the Committee of
Public Safety and the minister； prefect； or subprefect of the
Empire the difference is small： it is the same man under the two
costumes； first en carmagnole； then in the braided coat。''
The dogma of equality had as its first consequence the
proclamation of popular sovereignty by the bourgeoisie。 This
sovereignty remained otherwise highly theoretical during the
whole Revolution。
The principle of authority was the lasting legacy of the
Revolution。 The two terms ‘‘liberty'' and ‘‘fraternity'' which
accompany it in the republican device had never much influence。
We may even say that they had none during the Revolution and the
Empire； but merely served to decorate men's speeches。
Their influence was hardly more considerable later。 Fraternity
was never practised and the peoples have never cared much for
liberty。 To…day our working…men have completely surrendered it
to their unions。
To sum up： although the Republican motto has been little
applied it has exerted a very great influence。 Of the French
Revolution practically nothing has remained in the popular mind
but the three celebrated words which sum up its gospel； and which
its armies spread over Europe。
BOOK II
THE RATIONAL； AFFECTIVE； MYSTIC； AND COLLECTIVE INFLUENCES ACTIVE
DURING THE REVOLUTION
CHAPTER I
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY
1。 Psychological Influences active during the French Revolution。
The genesis of the French Revolution； as well as its duration；
was conditioned by elements of a rational； affective； mystic； and
collective nature； each category of which was ruled by a
different logic。 It is； as I have said； because they have not
been able to dissociate the respective influences of these
factors that so many historians have interpreted this period so
indifferently
The rational element usually invoked as an explanation exerted in
reality but a very slight influence。 It prepared the way for the
Revolution； but maintained it only at the outset； while it was
still exclusively middle…class。 Its action was manifested by
many measures of the time； such as the proposals to reform the
taxes； the suppression of the privileges of a useless nobility；
&c。
As soon as the Revolution reached the people； the influence of
the rational elements speedily vanished before that of the
affective and collective elements。 As for the mystic elements；
the foundation of the revolutionary faith； they made the army
fanatical and propagated the new belief throughout the world。
We shall see these various elements as they appeared in events
and in the psychology of individuals。 Perhaps the most important
was the mystic element。 The Revolution cannot be clearly
comprehendedwe cannot repeat it too oftenunless it is
considered as the formation of a religious belief。 What I have
said elsewhere