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practical utility； it is extremely interesting from a
psychological point of view。 The philosopher who wishes to
understand the working of men's minds should always carefully
consider the illusions which they live with。 Never； perhaps； in
the course of history have these illusions appeared so profound
and so numerous as during the Revolution。
One of the most prominent was the singular conception of the
nature of our first ancestors and primitive societies。
Anthropology not having as yet revealed the conditions of our
remoter forbears； men supposed； being influenced by the legends
of the Bible； that man had issued perfect from the hands of the
Creator。 The first societies were models which were afterwards
ruined by civilisation； but to which mankind must return。
The return to the state of nature was very soon the general cry。
‘‘The fundamental principle of all morality； of which I have
treated in my writings；'' said Rousseau； ‘‘is that man is a being
naturally good； loving justice and order。''
Modern science； by determining； from the surviving remnants； the
conditions of life of our first ancestors； has long ago shown the
error of this doctrine。 Primitive man has become an ignorant and
ferocious brute； as ignorant as the modern savage of goodness；
morality； and pity。 Governed only by his instinctive impulses；
he throws himself on his prey when hunger drives him from his
cave； and falls upon his enemy the moment he is aroused by
hatred。 Reason； not being born； could have no hold over his
instincts。
The aim of civilisation； contrary to all revolutionary beliefs；
has been not to return to the state of nature but to escape from
it。 It was precisely because the Jacobins led mankind back to
the primitive condition by destroying all the social restraints
without which no civilisation can exist that they transformed a
political society into a barbarian horde。
The ideas of these theorists concerning the nature of man were
about as valuable as those of a Roman general concerning the
power of omens。 Yet their influence as motives of action was
considerable。 The Convention was always inspired by such ideas。
The errors concerning our primitive ancestors were excusable
enough； since before modern discoveries had shown us the real
conditions of their existence these were absolutely unknown。 But
the absolute ignorance of human psychology displayed by the men
of the Revolution is far less easy to understand。
It would really seem as though the philosophers and writers of
the eighteenth century must have been totally deficient in the
smallest faculty of observation。 They lived amidst their
contemporaries without seeing them and without understanding
them。 Above all； they had not a suspicion of the true nature of
the popular mind。 The man of the people always appeared to them
in the likeness of the chimerical model created by their dreams。
As ignorant of psychology as of the teachings of history； they
considered the plebeian man as naturally good； affectionate；
grateful； and always ready to listen to reason。
The speeches delivered by members of the Assembly show how
profound were these illusions。 When the peasants began to burn
the chateaux they were greatly astonished； and addressed
them in sentimental harangues； praying them to cease； in order
not to ‘‘give pain to their good king；'' and adjured them ‘‘to
surprise him by their virtues。''
2。 Illusions respecting the Possibility of separating Man from
his Past and the Power of Transformation attributed to the Law。
One of the principles which served as a foundation for the
revolutionary institutions was that man may readily be cut off
from his past； and that a society may be re…made in all its parts
by means of institutions。 Persuaded in the light of reason that；
except for the primitive ages which were to serve as models； the
past represented an inheritance of errors and superstitions； the
legislators of the day resolved to break entirely with that past。
The better to emphasise their intention； they founded a
new era； transformed the calendar； and changed the names of the
months and seasons。
Supposing all men to be alike； they thought they could legislate
for the human race。 Condorcet imagined that he was expressing an
evident truth when he said： ‘‘A good law must be good for all
men； just as a geometrical proposition is true for all。''
The theorists of the Revolution never perceived； behind the world
of visible things； the secret springs which moved them。 A
century of biological progress was needed to show how grievous
were their mistakes； and how wholly a being of whatever species
depends on its past。
With the influence of the past； the reformers of the Revolution
were always clashing； without ever understanding it。 They wanted
to annihilate it； but were annihilated by it instead。
The faith of law…makers in the absolute power of laws and
institutions； rudely shaken by the end of the Revolution； was
absolute at its outbreak。 Gregoire said from the tribune of
the Constituent Assembly； without provoking the least
astonishment： ‘‘We could if we would change religion； but we do
not want to。'' We know that they did want to later； and we know
how miserably their attempt failed。
Yet the Jacobins had in their hands all the elements of success。
Thanks to the completest of tyrannies； all obstacles were
removed； and the laws which it pleased them to impose were always
accepted。 After ten years of violence； of destruction and
burning and pillage and massacre and general upheaval；
their impotence was revealed so startlingly that they fell into
universal reprobation。 The dictator then invoked by the whole of
France was obliged to re…establish the greater part of that which
had been destroyed。
The attempt of the Jacobins to re…fashion society in the name of
pure reason constitutes an experiment of the highest interest。
Probably mankind will never have occasion to repeat it on so vast
a scale。
Although the lesson was a terrible one； it does not seem to have
been sufficient for a considerable class of minds； since even in
our days we hear Socialists propose to rebuild society from top
to bottom according to their chimerical plans。
3。 Illusions respecting the Theoretical Value of the great
Revolutionary Principles。
The fundamental principles on which the Revolution was based in
order to create a new dispensation are contained in the
Declarations of Rights which were formulated successively in
1789； 1793； and 1795。 All three Declarations agree in
proclaiming that ‘‘the principle of sovereignty resides in the
nation。''
For the rest； the three Declarations differ on several points；
notably in the matter of equality。 That of 1789 simply states
（Article 1）： ‘‘Men are born and remain free and having equal
rights。'' That of 1793 goes farther； and assures u