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longer asks their utilitarian value； but seeks merely to explain
them。
His situation is that of the observer before any phenomenon。 It
is obviously difficult to read in cold blood that Carrier ordered
his victims to be buried up to the neck so that they might then
be blinded and subjected to horrible torments。 Yet if we wish to
comprehend such acts we must be no more indignant than the
naturalist before the spider slowly devouring a fly。 As soon as
the reason is moved it is no longer reason； and can explain
nothing。
The functions of the historian and the psychologist are not； as
we see； identical； but of both we may demand the endeavour； by a
wise interpretation of the facts； to discover； under the visible
evidences； the invisible forces which determine them。
CHAPTER II
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE ANCIEN REGIME
1。 The Absolute Monarchy and the Bases of the Ancien Regime。
Many historians assure us that the Revolution was directed
against the autocracy of the monarchy。 In reality the kings of
France had ceased to be absolute monarchs long before its
outbreak。
Only very late in historynot until the reign of Louis XIV。did
they finally obtain incontestable power。 All the preceding
sovereigns； even the most powerful； such as Francis I。； for
example； had to sustain a constant struggle either against the
seigneurs； or the clergy； or the parliaments； and they did not
always win。 Francis himself had not sufficient power to protect
his most intimate friends against the Sorbonne and the
Parliament。 His friend and councillor Berquin； having offended
the Sorbonne； was arrested upon the order of the latter body。
The king ordered his release； which was refused。 He was obliged
to send archers to remove him from the Conciergerie； and could
find no other means of protecting him than that of keeping him
beside him in the Louvre。 The Sorbonne by no means considered
itself beaten。 Profiting by the king's absence； it
arrested Berquin again and had him tried by Parliament。
Condemned at ten in the morning； he was burned alive at noon。
Built up very gradually； the power of the kings of France was not
absolute until the time of Louis XIV。 It then rapidly declined；
and it would be truly difficult to speak of the absolutism of
Louis XVI。
This pretended master was the slave of his court； his ministers；
the clergy； and the nobles。 He did what they forced him to do
and rarely what he wished。 Perhaps no Frenchman was so little
free as the king。
The great power of the monarchy resided originally in the Divine
origin which was attributed to it； and in the traditions which
had accumulated during the ages。 These formed the real social
framework of the country。
The true cause of the disappearance of the ancien regime was
simply the weakening of the traditions which served as its
foundations。 When after repeated criticism it could find no more
defenders； the ancien regime crumbled like a building whose
foundations have been destroyed。
2。 The Inconveniences of the Ancien Regime
A long…established system of government will always finally seem
acceptable to the people governed。 Habit masks its
inconveniences； which appear only when men begin to think。 Then
they ask how they could ever have supported them。 The truly
unhappy man is the man who believes himself miserable。
It was precisely this belief which was gaining ground at the time
of the Revolution； under the influence of the writers whose work
we shall presently study。 Then the imperfections of the
ancien regime stared all men in the face。 They were
numerous； it is enough to mention a few。
Despite the apparent authority of the central power； the kingdom；
formed by the successive conquest of independent provinces； was
divided into territories each of which had its own laws and
customs； and each of which paid different imposts。 Internal
customs…houses separated them。 The unity of France was thus
somewhat artificial。 It represented an aggregate of various
countries which the repeated efforts of the kings； including
Louis XIV。； had not succeeded in wholly unifying。 The most
useful effect of the Revolution was this very unification。
To such material divisions were added social divisions
constituted by different classesnobles； clergy； and the Third
Estate； whose rigid barriers could only with the utmost
difficulty be crossed。
Regarding the division of the classes as one of its sources of
power； the ancien regime had rigorously maintained that
division。 This became the principal cause of the hatreds which
the system inspired。 Much of the violence of the triumphant
bourgeoisie represented vengeance for a long past of disdain
and oppression。 The wounds of self…love are the most difficult
of all to forget。 The Third Estate had suffered many such
wounds。 At a meeting of the States General in 1614； at which its
representatives were obliged to remain bareheaded on their knees；
one member of the Third Estate having dared to say that the three
orders were like three brothers； the spokesman of the nobles
replied ‘‘that there was no fraternity between it and the Third；
that the nobles did not wish the children of cobblers and
tanners to call them their brothers。''
Despite the march of enlightenment the nobles and the clergy
obstinately preserved their privileges and their demands； no
longer justifiable now that these classes had ceased to render
services。
Kept from the exercise of public functions by the royal power；
which distrusted them； and progressively replaced by a
bourgeoisie which was more and more learned and capable； the
social role of nobility and clergy was only an empty show。
This point has been luminously expounded by Taine：
‘‘Since the nobility； having lost its special capacity； and the
Third Estate； having acquired general capacity； were now on a
level in respect of education and aptitudes； the inequality which
divided them had become hurtful and useless。 Instituted by
custom； it was no longer ratified by the consciousness； and the
Third Estate was with reason angered by privileges which nothing
justified； neither the capacity of the nobles nor the incapacity
of the bourgeoisie。''
By reason of the rigidity of castes established by a long past we
cannot see what could have persuaded the nobles and the clergy to
renounce their privileges。 Certainly they did finally abandon
them one memorable evening； when events forced them to do so； but
then it was too late； and the Revolution； unchained； was pursuing
its course。
It is certain that modern progress would successively have
established all that the Revolution effectedthe equality of
citizens before the law； the suppression of the privileges of
birth； &c。 Despite the conservative spirit of the Latins； these
things would have been won； as they were by the majority
of the p