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the Royal Family were circulated； depicting it as a nest of
ghouls and vampires。
These various characteristics show that man in the crowd descends
to a very low degree in the scale of civilisation。 He becomes a
savage； with all a savage's faults and qualities； with all his
momentary violence； enthusiasm； and heroism。 In the intellectual
domain a crowd is always inferior to the isolated unit。 In the
moral and sentimental domain it may be his superior。 A crowd
will commit a crime as readily as an act of abnegation。
Personal characteristics vanish in the crowd； which exerts an
extraordinary influence upon the individuals which form it。 The
miser becomes generous； the sceptic a believer； the honest
man a criminal； the coward a hero。 Examples of such
transformations abounded during the great Revolution。
As part of a jury or a parliament； the collective man renders
verdicts or passes laws of which he would never have dreamed in
his isolated condition。
One of the most notable consequences of the influence of a
collectivity upon the individuals who compose it is the
unification of their sentiments and wills。 This psychological
unity confers a remarkable force upon crowds。
The formation of such a mental unity results chiefly from the
fact that in a crowd gestures and actions are extremely
contagious。 Acclamations of hatred； fury； or love are
immediately approved and repeated。
What is the origin of these common sentiments； this common will？
They are propagated by contagion； but a point of departure is
necessary before this contagion can take effect。 Without a
leader the crowd is an amorphous entity incapable of action。
A knowledge of the laws relating to the psychology of crowds is
indispensable to the interpretation of the elements of our
Revolution； and to a comprehension of the conduct of
revolutionary assemblies； and the singular transformations of the
individuals who form part of them。 Pushed by the unconscious
forces of the collective soul； they more often than not say what
they did not intend； and vote what they would not have wished to
vote。
Although the laws of collective psychology have sometimes been
divined instinctively by superior statesmen； the majority of
Governments have not understood and do not understand
them。 It is because they do not understand them that so many of
them have fallen so easily。 When we see the facility with which
certain Governments were overthrown by an insignificant riotas
happened in the case of the monarchy of Louis…Philippethe
dangers of an ignorance of collective psychology are evident。
The marshal in command of the troops in 1848； which were more
than sufficient to defend the king； certainly did not understand
that the moment he allowed the crowd to mingle with the troops
the latter； paralysed by suggestion and contagion； would cease to
do their duty。 Neither did he know that as the multitude is
extremely sensible to prestige it needs a great display of force
to impress it； and that such a display will at once suppress
hostile demonstrations。 He was equally ignorant of the fact that
all gatherings should be dispersed immediately。 All these things
have been taught by experience； but in 1848 these lessons had not
been grasped。 At the time of the great Revolution the psychology
of crowds was even less understood。
2。 How the Stability of the Racial Mind limits the Oscillations
of the Mind of the Crowd。
A people can in a sense be likened to a crowd。 It possesses
certain characteristics； but the oscillations of these
characteristics are limited by the soul or mind of the race。 The
mind of the race has a fixity unknown to the transitory mind of
the crowd。
When a people possesses an ancestral soul established by a long
past the soul of the crowd is always dominated thereby。
A people differs from a crowd also in that it is composed of a
collection of groups； each having different interests and
passions。 In a crowd properly so…calleda popular assembly； for
examplethere are unities which may belong to very different
social categories。
A people sometimes seems as mobile as a crowd； but we must not
forget that behind its mobility； its enthusiasms； its violence
and destructiveness； the extremely tenacious and conservative
instincts of the racial mind persist。 The history of the
Revolution and the century which has followed shows how the
conservative spirit finally overcomes the spirit of destruction。
More than one system of government which the people has shattered
has been restored by the people。
It is not as easy to work upon the mind of the peoplethat is；
the mind of the raceas on the mind of a crowd。 The means of
action are indirect and slower （journals； conferences； speeches；
books； &c。）。 The elements of persuasion always come under the
headings already given： affirmation； repetition； prestige； and
contagion。
Mental contagion may affect a whole people instantaneously； but
more often it operates slowly； creeping from group to group。
Thus was the Reformation propagated in France。
A people is far less excitable than a crowd； but certain events
national insults； threats of invasion； &c。may arouse it
instantly。 Such a phenomenon was observed on several occasions
during the Revolution； notably at the time of the insolent
manifesto issued by the Duke of Brunswick。 The Duke knew little
indeed of the psychology of the French race when he
proffered his threats。 Not only did he considerably prejudice
the cause of Louis XVI。； but he also damaged his own； since his
intervention raised from the soil an army eager to fight him。
This sudden explosion of feeling throughout a whole race has been
observed in all nations。 Napoleon did not understand the power
of such explosions when he invaded Spain and Russia。 One may
easily disaggregate the facile mind of a crowd； but one can do
nothing before the permanent soul of a race。 Certainly the
Russian peasant is a very indifferent being； gross and narrow by
nature； yet at the first news of invasion he was transformed。
One may judge of this fact on reading a letter written by
Elizabeth； wife of the Emperor Alexander I。
‘‘From the moment when Napoleon had crossed our frontiers it was
as though an electric spark had spread through all Russia； and if
the immensity of its area had made it possible for the news to
penetrate simultaneously to every corner of the Empire a cry of
indignation would have arisen so terrible that I believe it would
have resounded to the ends of the earth。 As Napoleon advances
this feeling is growing yet stronger。 Old men who have lost all
or nearly all their goods are saying： ‘We shall find a way of
living。 Anything is preferable to a shameful peace。' Women all
of whose kin are in the army regard the dangers they are running
as secondary； and fear nothing but peace。 Happily this peace；
which woul