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and enables them to regard themselves as great reformers。
In normal times the rebels which every society contains are
restrained by the laws； by their environmentin short； by all
the usual social constraints； and therefore remain undetected。
But as soon as a time of disturbance begins these constraints
grow weaker； and the rebel can give a free reign to his
instincts。 He then becomes the accredited leader of a movement。
The motive of the revolution matters little to him； he will give
his life indifferently for the red flag or the white； or for the
liberation of a country which he has heard vaguely mentioned。
The revolutionary spirit is not always pushed to the extremes
which render it dangerous。 When； instead of deriving from
affective or mystic impulses； it has an intellectual origin； it
may become a source of progress。 It is thanks to those spirits
who are sufficiently independent to be intellectually
revolutionary that a civilisation is able to escape from the yoke
of tradition and habit when this becomes too heavy。 The
sciences； arts； and industries especially have progressed by
the aid of such men。 Galileo； Lavoisier； Darwin； and Pasteur
were such revolutionaries。
Although it is not necessary that a nation should possess any
large number of such spirits； it is very necessary that it should
possess some。 Without them men would still be living in caves。
The revolutionary audacity which results in discoveries implies
very rare faculties。 It necessitates notably an independence of
mind sufficient to escape from the influence of current opinions；
and a judgement that can grasp； under superficial analogies； the
hidden realities。 This form of revolutionary spirit is creative；
while that examined above is destructive。
The revolutionary mentality may； therefore； be compared to
certain physiological states in the life of the individual which
are normally useful； but which； when exaggerated； take a
pathological form which is always hurtful。
2。 The Criminal Mentality。
All the civilised societies inevitably drag behind them a residue
of degenerates； of the unadapted； of persons affected by various
taints。 Vagabonds； beggars； fugitives from justice； thieves；
assassins； and starving creatures that live from day to day； may
constitute the criminal population of the great cities。 In
ordinary times these waste products of civilisation are more or
less restrained by the police。 During revolution nothing
restrains them； and they can easily gratify their instincts to
murder and plunder。 In the dregs of society the revolutionaries
of all times are sure of finding recruits。 Eager only to kill
and to plunder； little matters to them the cause they are
sworn to defend。 If the chances of murder and pillage are better
in the party attacked； they will promptly change their colours。
To these criminals； properly so called； the incurable plague of
all societies； we must add the class of semi…criminals。
Wrongdoers on occasion； they never rebel so long as the fear of
the established order restrains them； but as soon as it weakens
they enrol themselves in the army of revolution。
These two categorieshabitual and occasional criminalsform an
army of disorder which is fit for nothing but the creation of
disorder。 All the revolutionaries； all the founders of religious
or political leagues； have constantly counted on their support。
We have already stated that this population； with its criminal
mentality； exercised a considerable influence during the French
Revolution。 It always figured in the front rank of the riots
which occurred almost daily。 Certain historians have spoken with
respect and emotion of the way in which the sovereign people
enforced its will upon the Convention； invading the hall armed
with pikes； the points of which were sometimes decorated with
newly severed heads。 If we analyse the elements composing the
pretended delegations of the sovereign people； we shall find
that； apart from a small number of simple souls who submitted to
the impulses of the leaders； the mass was almost entirely formed
of the bandits of whom I have been speaking。 To them were due
the innumerable murders of which the massacres of September and
the killing of the Princesse de Lamballe were merely typical。
They terrorised all the great Assemblies； from the Constituent
Assembly to the Convention； and for ten years they helped to
ravage France。 If by some miracle this army of criminals could
have been eliminated； the progress of the Revolution would have
been very different。 They stained it with blood from its dawn to
its decline。 Reason could do nothing with them but they could do
much against reason。
CHAPTER IV
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF REVOLUTIONARY CROWDS
1。 General Characteristics of the Crowd。
Whatever their origin； revolutions do not produce their full
effects until they have penetrated the soul of the multitude。
They therefore represent a consequence of the psychology of
crowds。
Although I have studied collective psychology at length in
another volume； I must here recall its principal laws。
Man； as part of a multitude； is a very different being from the
same man as an isolated individual。 His conscious individuality
vanishes in the unconscious personality of the crowd。
Material contact is not absolutely necessary to produce in the
individual the mentality of the crowd。 Common passions and
sentiments； provoked by certain events； are often sufficient to
create it。
The collective mind； momentarily formed； represents a very
special kind of aggregate。 Its chief peculiarity is that it is
entirely dominated by unconscious elements； and is subject to a
peculiar collective logic。
Among the other characteristics of crowds； we must note their
infinite credulity and exaggerated sensibility； their short…
sightedness； and their incapacity to respond to the influences of
reason。 Affirmation； contagion； repetition； and prestige
constitute almost the only means of persuading them。 Reality and
experience have no effect upon them。 The multitude will admit
anything； nothing is impossible in the eyes of the crowd。
By reason of the extreme sensibility of crowds； their sentiments；
good or bad； are always exaggerated。 This exaggeration increases
still further in times of revolution。 The least excitement will
then lead the multitude to act with the utmost fury。 Their
credulity； so great even in the normal state； is still further
increased； the most improbable statements are accepted。 Arthur
Young relates that when he visited the springs near Clermont； at
the time of the French Revolution； his guide was stopped by the
people； who were persuaded that he had come by order of the Queen
to mine and blow up the town。 The most horrible tales concerning
the Royal Family were circulated； depicting it as a nest of
ghouls and vampires。