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LAST CENTURY
1。 The psychological causes of the continued Revolutionary
Movements to which France has been subject
2。 Summary of a century's Revolutionary Movements in France
PART III
THE RECENT EVOLUTION OF THE REVOLUTIONARY PRINCIPLES
CHAPTER I。 THE PROGRESS OF DEMOCRATIC BELIEFS SINCE THE
REVOLUTION
1。 Gradual propagation of Democratic Ideas after the
Revolution
2。 The unequal influence of the three fundamental principles
of the Revolution
3。 The Democracy of the ‘‘Intellectuals'' and Popular
Democracy
4。 Natural Inequalities and Democratic Equalisation
CHAPTER II。 THE RESULTS OF DEMOCRATIC EVOLUTION
1。 The influence upon social evolution of theories of no
rational value
2。 The Jacobin Spirit and the Mentality created by
Democratic Beliefs
3。 Universal Suffrage and its representatives
4。 The craving for Reforms
5。 Social distinctions in Democracies and Democratic Ideas
in various countries
CHAPTER III。 THE NEW FORMS OF DEMOCRATIC BELIEF
1。 The conflict between Capital and Labour
2。 The evolution of the Working Classes and the Syndicalist
Movement
3。 Why certain modern Democratic Governments are gradually
being transformed into Governments by Administrative
Castes
CONCLUSIONS
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF REVOLUTION
INTRODUCTION
THE REVISION OF HISTORY
The present age is not merely an epoch of discovery； it is also a
period of revision of the various elements of knowledge。 Having
recognised that there are no phenomena of which the first cause
is still accessible； science has resumed the examination of her
ancient certitudes； and has proved their fragility。 To…day she
sees her ancient principles vanishing one by one。 Mechanics is
losing its axioms； and matter； formerly the eternal substratum of
the worlds； becomes a simple aggregate of ephemeral forces in
transitory condensation。
Despite its conjectural side； by virtue of which it to some
extent escapes the severest form of criticism； history has not
been free from this universal revision。 There is no longer a
single one of its phases of which we can say that it is certainly
known。 What appeared to be definitely acquired is now once more
put in question。
Among the events whose study seemed completed was the French
Revolution。 Analysed by several generations of writers； one
might suppose it to be perfectly elucidated。 What new thing can
be said of it； except in modification of some of its details？
And yet its most positive defenders are beginning to hesitate in
their judgments。 Ancient evidence proves to be far from
impeccable。 The faith in dogmas once held sacred is shaken。 The
latest literature of the Revolution betrays these uncertainties。
Having related； men are more and more chary of drawing
conclusions。
Not only are the heroes of this great drama discussed without
indulgence； but thinkers are asking whether the new dispensation
which followed the ancien regime would not have established
itself naturally； without violence； in the course of progressive
civilisation。 The results obtained no longer seem in
correspondence either with their immediate cost or with the
remoter consequences which the Revolution evoked from the
possibilities of history。
Several causes have led to the revision of this tragic period。
Time has calmed passions； numerous documents have gradually
emerged from the archives； and the historian is learning to
interpret them independently。
But it is perhaps modern psychology that has most effectually
influenced our ideas； by enabling us more surely to read men and
the motives of their conduct。
Among those of its discoveries which are henceforth applicable to
history we must mention； above all； a more profound understanding
of ancestral influences； the laws which rule the actions of the
crowd； data relating to the disaggregation of personality； mental
contagion； the unconscious formation of beliefs； and the
distinction between the various forms of logic。
To tell the truth； these applications of science； which are
utilised in this book； have not been so utilised hitherto。
Historians have generally stopped short at the study of
documents； and even that study is sufficient to excite the doubts
of which I have spoken。
The great events which shape the destinies of peoples
revolutions； for example； and the outbreak of religious beliefs
are sometimes so difficult to explain that one must limit oneself
to a mere statement。
From the time of my first historical researches I have been
struck by the impenetrable aspect of certain essential phenomena；
those relating to the genesis of beliefs especially； I felt
convinced that something fundamental was lacking that was
essential to their interpretation。 Reason having said all it
could say； nothing more could be expected of it； and other means
must be sought of comprehending what had not been elucidated。
For a long time these important questions remained obscure to me。
Extended travel； devoted to the study of the remnants of vanished
civilisations； had not done much to throw light upon them。
Reflecting upon it continually； I was forced to recognise that
the problem was composed of a series of other problems； which I
should have to study separately。 This I did for a period of
twenty years； presenting the results of my researches in a
succession of volumes。
One of the first was devoted to the study of the psychological
laws of the evolution of peoples。 Having shown that the
historic racesthat is； the races formed by the hazards of
historyfinally acquired psychological characteristics as stable
as their anatomical characteristics； I attempted to explain how a
people transforms its institutions； its languages； and its arts。
I explained in the same work why it was that individual
personalities； under the influence of sudden variations of
environment； might be entirely disaggregated。
But besides the fixed collectivities formed by the peoples； there
are mobile and transitory collectivities known as crowds。 Now
these crowds or mobs； by the aid of which the great movements of
history are accomplished； have characteristics absolutely
different from those of the individuals who compose them。 What
are these characteristics； and how are they evolved？ This new
problem was examined in The Psychology of the Crowd。
Only after these studies did I begin to perceive certain
influences which had escaped me。
But this was not all。 Among the most important factors of
history one was preponderantthe factor of beliefs。 How are
these beliefs born； and are they really rational and voluntary；
as was long taught？ Are they not rather unconscious and
independent of all reason？ A difficult question； which I dealt
with in m