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reformation had to learn that despite their liberalism they were
forced to govern by methods very like those employed by the
government overthrown。 They could neither prevent summary
executions nor wholesale massacres of Christians； nor could they
remedy a single abuse。
It would be unjust to reproach them。 What in truth could they
have done to change a people whose traditions have been fixed so
long； whose religious passions are so intense； and whose
Mohammedans； although in the minority； legitimately claim to
govern the sacred city of their faith according to their code？
How prevent Islam from remaining the State religion in a country
where civil law and religious law are not yet plainly separated；
and where faith in the Koran is the only tie by which the idea of
nationality can be maintained？
It was difficult to destroy such a state of affairs； so that we
were bound to see the re…establishment of an autocratic
organisation with an appearance of constitutionalismthat is to
say； practically the old system once again。 Such attempts afford
a good example of the fact that a people cannot choose its
institutions until it has transformed its mind。
4。 Social elements which survive the changes of Government after
Revolution。
What we shall say later on as to the stable foundation of the
national soul will enable us to appreciate the force of systems
of government that have been long established； such as ancient
monarchies。 A monarch may easily be overthrown by conspirators；
but these latter are powerless against the principles which the
monarch represents。 Napoleon at his fall was replaced not by his
natural heir； but by the heir of kings。 The latter incarnated an
ancient principle； while the son of the Emperor personified ideas
that were as yet imperfectly established in men's minds。
For the same reason a minister； however able； however great the
services he has rendered to his country； can very rarely
overthrow his Sovereign。 Bismarck himself could not have done
so。 This great minister had single…handed created the unity of
Germany； yet his master had only to touch him with his finger and
he vanished。 A man is as nothing before a principle supported by
opinion。
But even when； for various reasons； the principle incarnated by a
government is annihilated with that government； as happened at
the time of the French Revolution； all the elements of social
organisation do not perish at the same time。
If we knew nothing of France but the disturbances of the last
hundred years and more we might suppose the country to live in a
state of profound anarchy。 Now her economic； industrial； and
even her political life manifests； on the contrary； a continuity
that seems to be independent of all revolutions and governments。
The fact is that beside the great events of which history treats
are the little facts of daily life which the books neglect to
tell。 They are ruled by imperious necessities which halt for no
man。 Their total mass forms the real framework of the life of
the people。
While the study of great events shows us that the nominal
government of France has been frequently changed in the space of
a century； an examination of the little daily events will prove；
on the contrary； that her real government has been little
altered。
Who in truth are the real rulers of a people？ Kings and
ministers； no doubt； in the great crises of national life； but
they play no part whatever in the little realities which make up
the life of every day。 The real directing forces of a country
are the administrations； composed of impersonal elements which
are never affected by the changes of government。 Conservative of
traditions； they are anonymous and lasting； and constitute an
occult power before which all others must eventually bow。 Their
action has even increased to such a degree that； as we shall
presently show； there is a danger that they may form an anonymous
State more powerful than the official State。 France has thus
come to be governed by heads of departments and government
clerks。 The more we study the history of revolutions the more we
discover that they change practically nothing but the label。 To
create a revolution is easy； but to change the soul of a people
is difficult indeed。
CHAPTER IV
THE PART PLAYED BY THE PEOPLE IN REVOLUTIONS
1。 The stability and malleability of the national mind。
The knowledge of a people at any given moment of its history
involves an understanding of its environment and above all of its
past。 Theoretically one may deny that past； as did the men of
the Revolution； as many men of the present day have done； but its
influence remains indestructible。
In the past； built up by slow accumulations of centuries； was
formed the aggregation of thoughts； sentiments； traditions； and
prejudices constituting the national mind which makes the
strength of a race。 Without it no progress is possible。 Each
generation would necessitate a fresh beginning。
The aggregate composing the soul of a people is solidly
established only if it possesses a certain rigidity； but this
rigidity must not pass a certain limit； or there would be no such
thing as malleability。
Without rigidity the ancestral soul would have no fixity； and
without malleability it could not adapt itself to the changes of
environment resulting from the progress of civilization。
Excessive malleability of the national mind impels a people to
incessant revolutions。 Excess of rigidity leads it to
decadence。 Living species； like the races of humanity； disappear
when； too fixedly established by a long past； they become
incapable of adapting themselves to new conditions of existence。
Few peoples have succeeded in effecting a just equilibrium
between these two contrary qualities of stability and
malleability。 The Romans in antiquity and the English in modern
times may be cited among those who have best attained it。
The peoples whose mind is most fixed and established often effect
the most violent revolutions。 Not having succeeded in evolving
progressively； in adapting themselves to changes of environment；
they are forced to adapt themselves violently when such
adaptation becomes indispensable。
Stability is only acquired very slowly。 The history of a race is
above all the story of its long efforts to establish its mind。
So long as it has not succeeded it forms a horde of barbarians
without cohesion and strength。 After the invasions of the end of
the Roman Empire France took several centuries to form a national
soul。
She finally achieved one； but in the course of centuries this
soul finally became too rigid。 With a little more malleability；
the ancient monarchy would have been slowly transformed as it was
elsewhere； and we should have avoided； together with the
Revolution and its consequences； the heavy task of remaking a