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ts we may likewise know the difference between men and brutes。 For it is highly deserving of remark； that there are no men so dull and stupid； not even idiots； as to be incapable of joining together different words； and thereby constructing a declaration by which to make their thoughts understood； and that on the other hand； there is no other animal； however perfect or happily circumstanced； which can do the like。 Nor does this inability arise from want of organs： for we observe that magpies and parrots can utter words like ourselves； and are yet unable to speak as we do； that is； so as to show that they understand what they say； in place of which men born deaf and dumb； and thus not less； but rather more than the brutes； destitute of the organs which others use in speaking； are in the habit of spontaneously inventing certain signs by which they discover their thoughts to those who； being usually in their company； have leisure to learn their language。 And this proves not only that the brutes have less reason than man； but that they have none at all： for we see that very little is required to enable a person to speak； and since a certain inequality of capacity is observable among animals of the same species； as well as among men； and since some are more capable of being instructed than others； it is incredible that the most perfect ape or parrot of its species； should not in this be equal to the most stupid infant of its kind or at least to one that was crack…brained； unless the soul of brutes were of a nature wholly different from ours。 And we ought not to confound speech with the natural movements which indicate the passions； and can be imitated by machines as well as manifested by animals； nor must it be thought with certain of the ancients； that the brutes speak； although we do not understand their language。 For if such were the case； since they are endowed with many organs analogous to ours； they could as easily communicate their thoughts to us as to their fellows。 It is also very worthy of remark； that； though there are many animals which manifest more industry than we in certain of their actions； the same animals are yet observed to show none at all in many others： so that the circumstance that they do better than we does not prove that they are endowed with mind； for it would thence follow that they possessed greater reason than any of us； and could surpass us in all things； on the contrary； it rather proves that they are destitute of reason； and that it is nature which acts in them according to the disposition of their organs： thus it is seen； that a clock composed only of wheels and weights can number the hours and measure time more exactly than we with all our skin。
I had after this described the reasonable soul； and shown that it could by no means be educed from the power of matter； as the other things of which I had spoken； but that it must be expressly created； and that it is not sufficient that it be lodged in the human body exactly like a pilot in a ship； unless perhaps to move its members； but that it is necessary for it to be joined and united more closely to the body； in order to have sensations and appetites similar to ours； and thus constitute a real man。 I here entered； in conclusion； upon the subject of the soul at considerable length； because it is of the greatest moment： for after the error of those who deny the existence of God； an error which I think I have already sufficiently refuted； there is none that is more powerful in leading feeble minds astray from the straight path of virtue than the supposition that the soul of the brutes is of the same nature with our own； and consequently that after this life we have nothing to hope for or fear； more than flies and ants； in place of which； when we know how far they differ we much better comprehend the reasons which establish that the soul is of a nature wholly independent of the body； and that consequently it is not liable to die with the latter and； finally； because no other causes are observed capable of destroying it； we are naturally led thence to judge that it is immortal。
PART VI
Three years have now elapsed since I finished the treatise containing all these matters； and I was beginning to revise it； with the view to put it into the hands of a printer； when I learned that persons to whom I greatly defer； and whose authority over my actions is hardly less influential than is my own reason over my thoughts； had condemned a certain doctrine in physics； published a short time previously by another individual to which I will not say that I adhered； but only that； previously to their censure I had observed in it nothing which I could imagine to be prejudicial either to religion or to the state； and nothing therefore which would have prevented me from giving expression to it in writing； if reason had persuaded me of its truth； and this led me to fear lest among my own doctrines likewise some one might be found in which I had departed from the truth； notwithstanding the great care I have always taken not to accord belief to new opinions of which I had not the most certain demonstrations； and not to give expression to aught that might tend to the hurt of any one。 This has been sufficient to make me alter my purpose of publishing them； for although the reasons by which I had been induced to take this resolution were very strong； yet my inclination； which has always been hostile to writing books； enabled me immediately to discover other considerations sufficient to excuse me for not undertaking the task。 And these reasons； on one side and the other； are such； that not only is it in some measure my interest here to state them； but that of the public； perhaps； to know them。
I have never made much account of what has proceeded from my own mind； and so long as I gathered no other advantage from the method I employ beyond satisfying myself on some difficulties belonging to the speculative sciences； or endeavoring to regulate my actions according to the principles it taught me； I never thought myself bound to publish anything respecting it。 For in what regards manners； every one is so full of his own wisdom； that there might be found as many reformers as heads； if any were allowed to take upon themselves the task of mending them； except those whom God has constituted the supreme rulers of his people or to whom he has given sufficient grace and zeal to be prophets； and although my speculations greatly pleased myself； I believed that others had theirs； which perhaps pleased them still more。 But as soon as I had acquired some general notions respecting physics； and beginning to make trial of them in various particular difficulties； had observed how far they can carry us； and how much they differ from the principles that have been employed up to the present time； I believed that I could not keep them concealed without sinning grievously against the law by which we are bound to promote； as far as in us lies； the general good of mankind。 For by them I perceived it to be possible to arrive at knowledge highly useful in life； and in room of the speculative philosophy usually taught in the schools； to discover a practical； by means of which； knowing