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pathetically described by Victor Hugo）； from the imperfect articulation of
the deaf and dumb； from the jabbering of animals； from the analysis of
sounds in relation to the organs of speech。 The phonograph affords a
visible evidence of the nature and divisions of sound； we may be truly said
to know what we can manufacture。 Artificial languages； such as that of
Bishop Wilkins； are chiefly useful in showing what language is not。 The
study of any foreign language may be made also a study of Comparative
Philology。 There are several points； such as the nature of irregular
verbs； of indeclinable parts of speech； the influence of euphony； the decay
or loss of inflections； the elements of syntax； which may be examined as
well in the history of our own language as of any other。 A few well…
selected questions may lead the student at once into the heart of the
mystery： such as； Why are the pronouns and the verb of existence generally
more irregular than any other parts of speech？ Why is the number of words
so small in which the sound is an echo of the sense？ Why does the meaning
of words depart so widely from their etymology？ Why do substantives often
differ in meaning from the verbs to which they are related； adverbs from
adjectives？ Why do words differing in origin coalesce in the same sound
though retaining their differences of meaning？ Why are some verbs
impersonal？ Why are there only so many parts of speech； and on what
principle are they divided？ These are a few crucial questions which give
us an insight from different points of view into the true nature of
language。
（6） Thus far we have been endeavouring to strip off from language the false
appearances in which grammar and philology； or the love of system
generally； have clothed it。 We have also sought to indicate the sources of
our knowledge of it and the spirit in which we should approach it； we may
now proceed to consider some of the principles or natural laws which have
created or modified it。
i。 The first and simplest of all the principles of language； common also
to the animals； is imitation。 The lion roars； the wolf howls in the
solitude of the forest： they are answered by similar cries heard from a
distance。 The bird； too； mimics the voice of man and makes answer to him。
Man tells to man the secret place in which he is hiding himself； he
remembers and repeats the sound which he has heard。 The love of imitation
becomes a passion and an instinct to him。 Primitive men learnt to speak
from one another； like a child from its mother or nurse。 They learnt of
course a rudimentary； half…articulate language； the cry or song or speech
which was the expression of what we now call human thoughts and feelings。
We may still remark how much greater and more natural the exercise of the
power is in the use of language than in any other process or action of the
human mind。
ii。 Imitation provided the first material of language： but it was
'without form and void。' During how many years or hundreds or thousands of
years the imitative or half…articulate stage continued there is no
possibility of determining。 But we may reasonably conjecture that there
was a time when the vocal utterance of man was intermediate between what we
now call language and the cry of a bird or animal。 Speech before language
was a rudis indigestaque materies； not yet distributed into words and
sentences； in which the cry of fear or joy mingled with more definite
sounds recognized by custom as the expressions of things or events。 It was
the principle of analogy which introduced into this 'indigesta moles' order
and measure。 It was Anaxagoras' omou panta chremata； eita nous elthon
diekosmese： the light of reason lighted up all things and at once began to
arrange them。 In every sentence； in every word and every termination of a
word； this power of forming relations to one another was contained。 There
was a proportion of sound to sound； of meaning to meaning； of meaning to
sound。 The cases and numbers of nouns； the persons； tenses； numbers of
verbs； were generally on the same or nearly the same pattern and had the
same meaning。 The sounds by which they were expressed were rough…hewn at
first； after a while they grew more refinedthe natural laws of euphony
began to affect them。 The rules of syntax are likewise based upon analogy。
Time has an analogy with space； arithmetic with geometry。 Not only in
musical notes； but in the quantity； quality； accent； rhythm of human
speech； trivial or serious； there is a law of proportion。 As in things of
beauty； as in all nature； in the composition as well as in the motion of
all things； there is a similarity of relations by which they are held
together。
It would be a mistake to suppose that the analogies of language are always
uniform： there may be often a choice between several； and sometimes one
and sometimes another will prevail。 In Greek there are three declensions
of nouns； the forms of cases in one of them may intrude upon another。
Similarly verbs in …omega and …mu iota interchange forms of tenses； and the
completed paradigm of the verb is often made up of both。 The same nouns
may be partly declinable and partly indeclinable； and in some of their
cases may have fallen out of use。 Here are rules with exceptions； they are
not however really exceptions； but contain in themselves indications of
other rules。 Many of these interruptions or variations of analogy occur in
pronouns or in the verb of existence of which the forms were too common and
therefore too deeply imbedded in language entirely to drop out。 The same
verbs in the same meaning may sometimes take one case； sometimes another。
The participle may also have the character of an adjective； the adverb
either of an adjective or of a preposition。 These exceptions are as
regular as the rules； but the causes of them are seldom known to us。
Language； like the animal and vegetable worlds； is everywhere intersected
by the lines of analogy。 Like number from which it seems to be derived；
the principle of analogy opens the eyes of men to discern the similarities
and differences of things； and their relations to one another。 At first
these are such as lie on the surface only； after a time they are seen by
men to reach farther down into the nature of things。 Gradually in language
they arrange themselves into a sort of imperfect system； groups of personal
and case endings are placed side by side。 The fertility of language
produces many more than are wanted； and the superfluous ones are utilized
by the assignment to them of new meanings。 The vacuity and the superfluity
are thus partially compensated by each other。 It must be remembered that
in all the languages which have a literature； certainly in Sanskrit； Greek；
Latin； we are not at the beginning but almost at the end of the linguistic
process； we have reached a time when the verb and the noun are nearly
perfected； though in no language d