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inexhaustible。 The comparisons of children learning to speak； of barbarous
nations； of musical notes； of the cries of animals； of the song of birds；
increase our insight into the nature of human speech。 Many observations
which would otherwise have escaped us are suggested by them。 But they do
not explain why； in man and in man only； the speaker met with a response
from the hearer； and the half articulate sound gradually developed into
Sanscrit and Greek。 They hardly enable us to approach any nearer the
secret of the origin of language； which； like some of the other great
secrets of nature；the origin of birth and death； or of animal life；
remains inviolable。 That problem is indissolubly bound up with the origin
of man； and if we ever know more of the one； we may expect to know more of
the other。 （Compare W。 Humboldt； 'Ueber die Verschiedenheit des
menschlichen Sprachbaues；' M。 Muller； 'Lectures on the Science of
Language；' Steinthal； 'Einleitung in die Psychologie und
Sprachwissenschaft。'
。。。
It is more than sixteen years since the preceding remarks were written；
which with a few alterations have now been reprinted。 During the interval
the progress of philology has been very great。 More languages have been
compared； the inner structure of language has been laid bare； the relations
of sounds have been more accurately discriminated； the manner in which
dialects affect or are affected by the literary or principal form of a
language is better understood。 Many merely verbal questions have been
eliminated； the remains of the old traditional methods have died away。 The
study has passed from the metaphysical into an historical stage。 Grammar
is no longer confused with language； nor the anatomy of words and sentences
with their life and use。 Figures of speech； by which the vagueness of
theories is often concealed； have been stripped off； and we see language
more as it truly was。 The immensity of the subject is gradually revealed
to us； and the reign of law becomes apparent。 Yet the law is but partially
seen； the traces of it are often lost in the distance。 For languages have
a natural but not a perfect growth； like other creations of nature into
which the will of man enters； they are full of what we term accident and
irregularity。 And the difficulties of the subject become not less； but
greater； as we proceedit is one of those studies in which we seem to know
less as we know more； partly because we are no longer satisfied with the
vague and superficial ideas of it which prevailed fifty years ago； partly
also because the remains of the languages with which we are acquainted
always were； and if they are still living； are； in a state of transition；
and thirdly； because there are lacunae in our knowledge of them which can
never be filled up。 Not a tenth； not a hundredth part of them has been
preserved。 Yet the materials at our disposal are far greater than any
individual can use。 Such are a few of the general reflections which the
present state of philology calls up。
（1） Language seems to be composite； but into its first elements the
philologer has never been able to penetrate。 However far he goes back； he
never arrives at the beginning； or rather； as in Geology or in Astronomy；
there is no beginning。 He is too apt to suppose that by breaking up the
existing forms of language into their parts he will arrive at a previous
stage of it； but he is merely analyzing what never existed； or is never
known to have existed； except in a composite form。 He may divide nouns and
verbs into roots and inflexions； but he has no evidence which will show
that the omega of tupto or the mu of tithemi； though analogous to ego； me；
either became pronouns or were generated out of pronouns。 To say that
'pronouns； like ripe fruit； dropped out of verbs；' is a misleading figure
of speech。 Although all languages have some common principles； there is no
primitive form or forms of language known to us； or to be reasonably
imagined； from which they are all descended。 No inference can be drawn
from language； either for or against the unity of the human race。 Nor is
there any proof that words were ever used without any relation to each
other。 Whatever may be the meaning of a sentence or a word when applied to
primitive language； it is probable that the sentence is more akin to the
original form than the word； and that the later stage of language is the
result rather of analysis than of synthesis； or possibly is a combination
of the two。 Nor； again； are we sure that the original process of learning
to speak was the same in different places or among different races of men。
It may have been slower with some； quicker with others。 Some tribes may
have used shorter； others longer words or cries： they may have been more
or less inclined to agglutinate or to decompose them： they may have
modified them by the use of prefixes； suffixes； infixes； by the lengthening
and strengthening of vowels or by the shortening and weakening of them； by
the condensation or rarefaction of consonants。 But who gave to language
these primeval laws； or why one race has triliteral； another biliteral
roots； or why in some members of a group of languages b becomes p； or d； t；
or ch； k； or why two languages resemble one another in certain parts of
their structure and differ in others； or why in one language there is a
greater development of vowels； in another of consonants； and the likeare
questions of which we only 'entertain conjecture。' We must remember the
length of time that has elapsed since man first walked upon the earth； and
that in this vast but unknown period every variety of language may have
been in process of formation and decay； many times over。
（Compare Plato； Laws）：
'ATHENIAN STRANGER： And what then is to be regarded as the origin of
government？ Will not a man be able to judge best from a point of view in
which he may behold the progress of states and their transitions to good
and evil？
CLEINIAS： What do you mean？
ATHENIAN STRANGER： I mean that he might watch them from the point of view
of time； and observe the changes which take place in them during infinite
ages。
CLEINIAS： How so？
ATHENIAN STRANGER： Why； do you think that you can reckon the time which
has elapsed since cities first existed and men were citizens of them？
CLEINIAS： Hardly。
ATHENIAN STRANGER： But you are quite sure that it must be vast and
incalculable？
CLEINIAS： No doubt。
ATHENIAN STRANGER： And have there not been thousands and thousands of
cities which have come into being and perished during this period？ And has
not every place had endless forms of government； and been sometimes rising；
and at other times falling； and again improving or waning？'
Aristot。 Metaph。：
'And if a person should conceive the tales of mythology to mean only that
men thought the gods to be the first essences of things； he would deem the
refl