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state。 Whether the doctrine of the flux or of the eternal nature be the
truer； is hard to determine。 But no man of sense will put himself； or the
education of his mind； in the power of names： he will not condemn himself
to be an unreal thing； nor will he believe that everything is in a flux
like the water in a leaky vessel； or that the world is a man who has a
running at the nose。 This doctrine may be true； Cratylus； but is also very
likely to be untrue； and therefore I would have you reflect while you are
young； and find out the truth； and when you know come and tell me。 'I have
thought； Socrates； and after a good deal of thinking I incline to
Heracleitus。' Then another day； my friend； you shall give me a lesson。
'Very good； Socrates； and I hope that you will continue to study these
things yourself。'
。。。
We may now consider （I） how far Plato in the Cratylus has discovered the
true principles of language； and then （II） proceed to compare modern
speculations respecting the origin and nature of language with the
anticipations of his genius。
I。 （1） Plato is aware that language is not the work of chance； nor does he
deny that there is a natural fitness in names。 He only insists that this
natural fitness shall be intelligibly explained。 But he has no idea that
language is a natural organism。 He would have heard with surprise that
languages are the common work of whole nations in a primitive or semi…
barbarous age。 How； he would probably have argued； could men devoid of art
have contrived a structure of such complexity？ No answer could have been
given to this question； either in ancient or in modern times； until the
nature of primitive antiquity had been thoroughly studied； and the
instincts of man had been shown to exist in greater force； when his state
approaches more nearly to that of children or animals。 The philosophers of
the last century； after their manner； would have vainly endeavoured to
trace the process by which proper names were converted into common； and
would have shown how the last effort of abstraction invented prepositions
and auxiliaries。 The theologian would have proved that language must have
had a divine origin； because in childhood； while the organs are pliable；
the intelligence is wanting； and when the intelligence is able to frame
conceptions； the organs are no longer able to express them。 Or； as others
have said： Man is man because he has the gift of speech； and he could not
have invented that which he is。 But this would have been an 'argument too
subtle' for Socrates； who rejects the theological account of the origin of
language 'as an excuse for not giving a reason；' which he compares to the
introduction of the 'Deus ex machina' by the tragic poets when they have to
solve a difficulty； thus anticipating many modern controversies in which
the primary agency of the divine Being is confused with the secondary
cause； and God is assumed to have worked a miracle in order to fill up a
lacuna in human knowledge。 （Compare Timaeus。）
Neither is Plato wrong in supposing that an element of design and art
enters into language。 The creative power abating is supplemented by a
mechanical process。 'Languages are not made but grow；' but they are made
as well as grow； bursting into life like a plant or a flower； they are also
capable of being trained and improved and engrafted upon one another。 The
change in them is effected in earlier ages by musical and euphonic
improvements； at a later stage by the influence of grammar and logic； and
by the poetical and literary use of words。 They develope rapidly in
childhood； and when they are full grown and set they may still put forth
intellectual powers； like the mind in the body； or rather we may say that
the nobler use of language only begins when the frame…work is complete。
The savage or primitive man； in whom the natural instinct is strongest； is
also the greatest improver of the forms of language。 He is the poet or
maker of words； as in civilised ages the dialectician is the definer or
distinguisher of them。 The latter calls the second world of abstract terms
into existence； as the former has created the picture sounds which
represent natural objects or processes。 Poetry and philosophythese two；
are the two great formative principles of language； when they have passed
their first stage； of which； as of the first invention of the arts in
general； we only entertain conjecture。 And mythology is a link between
them； connecting the visible and invisible； until at length the sensuous
exterior falls away； and the severance of the inner and outer world； of the
idea and the object of sense； becomes complete。 At a later period； logic
and grammar； sister arts； preserve and enlarge the decaying instinct of
language； by rule and method； which they gather from analysis and
observation。
（2） There is no trace in any of Plato's writings that he was acquainted
with any language but Greek。 Yet he has conceived very truly the relation
of Greek to foreign languages； which he is led to consider； because he
finds that many Greek words are incapable of explanation。 Allowing a good
deal for accident； and also for the fancies of the conditores linguae
Graecae； there is an element of which he is unable to give an account。
These unintelligible words he supposes to be of foreign origin； and to have
been derived from a time when the Greeks were either barbarians； or in
close relations to the barbarians。 Socrates is aware that this principle
is liable to great abuse； and； like the 'Deus ex machina；' explains
nothing。 Hence he excuses himself for the employment of such a device；
and remarks that in foreign words there is still a principle of
correctness； which applies equally both to Greeks and barbarians。
（3） But the greater number of primary words do not admit of derivation
from foreign languages； they must be resolved into the letters out of which
they are composed； and therefore the letters must have a meaning。 The
framers of language were aware of this； they observed that alpha was
adapted to express size； eta length； omicron roundness； nu inwardness； rho
accent rush or roar； lambda liquidity； gamma lambda the detention of the
liquid or slippery element； delta and tau binding； phi； psi； sigma； xi；
wind and cold； and so on。 Plato's analysis of the letters of the alphabet
shows a wonderful insight into the nature of language。 He does not
expressively distinguish between mere imitation and the symbolical use of
sound to express thought； but he recognises in the examples which he gives
both modes of imitation。 Gesture is the mode which a deaf and dumb person
would take of indicating his meaning。 And language is the gesture of the
tongue； in the use of the letter rho accent； to express a rushing or
roaring； or of omicron to express roundness； there is a direct imitation；
while in the use of the letter alpha to express size； or of eta to express
length； the im