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een operating for eight hundred years when Philip succeeded to the throne。 The Moorish conquest in 711 had practically isolated Spain from the rest of Europe。 In the Crusades she took no part； and reaped none of the signal advantages resulting from that great movement。 Her whole energies were directed toward throwing off the yoke of her civilized but 〃unbelieving〃 oppressors。 For a longer time than has now elapsed since the Norman Conquest of England； the entire Gothic population of Spain was engaged in unceasing religious and patriotic warfare。 The unlimited power thus acquired by an unscrupulous clergy； and the spirit of uncompromising bigotry thus imparted to the whole nation； are in this way readily accounted for。 But in spite of this； the affairs of Spain at the accession of Charles V。 were not in an unpromising condition。 The Spanish Visigoths had been the least barbarous of the Teutonic settlers within the limits of the Empire； their civil institutions were excellent； their cities had obtained municipal liberties at an earlier date than those of England； and their Parliaments indulged in a liberty of speech which would have seemed extravagant even to De Montfort。 So late as the time of Ferdinand； the Spaniards were still justly proud of their freedom； and the chivalrous ambition which inspired the marvellous expedition of Cortes to Mexico； and covered the soil of Italy with Spanish armies； was probably in the main a healthy one。 But the forces of Spanish freedom were united at too late an epoch； in 1492； the power of despotism was already in the ascendant。 In England the case was different。 The barons were enabled to combine and wrest permanent privileges from the crown； at a time when feudalism was strong。 But the Spanish communes waited for combined action until feudalism had become weak； and modern despotism； with its standing armies and its control of the spiritual power； was arrayed in the ranks against them。 The War of the Communes； early in the reign of Charles V。； irrevocably decided the case in favour of despotism； and from that date the internal decline of Spain may be said to have begun。
But the triumphant consolidation of the spiritual and temporal powers of despotism； and the abnormal development of loyalty and bigotry； were not the only evil results of the chronic struggle in which Spain had been engaged。 For many centuries； while Christian Spain had been but a fringe of debatable border…land on the skirts of the Moorish kingdom； perpetual guerilla warfare had rendered consecutive labour difficult or impracticable； and the physical configuration of the country contributed in bringing about this result。 To plunder the Moors across the border was easier than to till the ground at home。 Then as the Spaniards； exemplifying the military superiority of the feudal over the sultanic form of social organization； proceeded steadily to recover dominion over the land； the industrious Moors； instead of migrating backward before the advance of their conquerors； remained at home and submitted to them。 Thus Spanish society became compounded of two distinct castes；the Moorish Spaniards； who were skilled labourers； and the Gothic Spaniards； by whom all labour； crude or skilful； was deemed the stigma of a conquered race； and unworthy the attention of respectable people。 As Mr。 Motley concisely says：
〃The highest industrial and scientific civilization that had been exhibited upon Spanish territory was that of Moors and Jews。 When in the course of time those races had been subjugated； massacred； or driven into exile； not only was Spain deprived of its highest intellectual culture and its most productive labour； but intelligence； science； and industry were accounted degrading； because the mark of inferior and detested peoples。〃
This is the key to the whole subsequent history of Spain。 Bigotry； loyalty； and consecrated idleness are the three factors which have made that great country what it is to…day；the most backward region in Europe。 In view of the circumstances just narrated； it is not surprising to learn that in Philip II。's time a vast portion of the real estate of the country was held by the Church in mortmain； that forty…nine noble families owned all the rest； that all great estates were held in tail； and that the property of the aristocracy and the clergy was completely exempt from taxation。 Thus the accumulation and the diffusion of capital were alike prevented； and the few possessors of property wasted it in unproductive expenditure。 Hence the fundamental error of Spanish political economy； that wealth is represented solely by the precious metals； an error which well enough explains the total failure； in spite of her magnificent opportunities； of Spain's attempts to colonize the New World。 Such was the frightful condition of Spanish society under Philip II。； and as if this state of things were not bad enough； the next king； Philip III。； at the instigation of the clergy； decided to drive into banishment the only class of productive labourers yet remaining in the country。 In 1610； this stupendous crime and blunderunparalleled even in Spanish historywas perpetrated。 The entire Moorish population were expelled from their homes and driven into the deserts of Africa。 For the awful consequences of this mad action no remedy was possible。 No system of native industry could be created on demand； to take the place of that which had been thus wantonly crushed forever。 From this epoch dates the social ruin of Spain。 In less than a century her people were riotous with famine； and every sequestered glen and mountain pathway throughout the country had become a lurking…place for robbers。 Whoever would duly realize to what a lamentable condition this beautiful peninsula had in the seventeenth century been reduced； let him study the immortal pages of Lesage。 He will learn afresh the lesson； not yet sufficiently regarded in the discussion of social problems； that the laws of nature cannot be violated without entailing a penalty fearful in proportion to the extent of the violation。 But let him carefully remember also that the Spaniards are not and never have been a despicable people。 If Spain has produced one of the lowest characters in history； she has also produced one of the highest。 That man was every inch a Spaniard who； maimed； diseased； and poor； broken down by long captivity； and harassed by malignant persecution； lived nevertheless a life of grandeur and beauty fit to be a pattern for coming generations；the author of a book which has had a wider fame than any other in the whole range of secular literature； and which for delicate humour； exquisite pathos； and deep ethical sentiment； remains to…day without a peer or a rival。 If Philip II。 was a Spaniard； so； too； was Cervantes。
Spain could not be free； for she violated every condition by which freedom is secured to a people。 〃Acuteness of intellect； wealth of imagination； heroic qualities of heart and hand and brain； rarely surpassed in any race and manifested on a thousand battle…fields； and in the triumphs of a magnificent and most original literature； had not been able to save a whole nation from the disasters and the degradation which the mere words Philip II。 and the H