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olicy still directed in accordance with reminiscences of Agincourt； and garnet； and Burgundian alliances。 We find France just beginning her ill…fated career of intervention in the affairs of Italy； and Spain； with her Moors finally vanquished and a new world beyond the ocean just added to her domain； rapidly developing into the greatest empire which had been seen since the days of the first Caesars。 But at the close of the century we find feudal life in castles changed into modern life in towns； chivalric defiances exchanged for over…subtle diplomacy； Maurices instead of Bayards； a Henry IV。 instead of a Gaston de Foix。 We find the old theory of man's central position in the universethe foundation of the doctrine of final causes and of the whole theological method of interpreting naturefinally overthrown by Copernicus。 Instead of the circumnavigability of the earth； the discovery of a Northwest passageas instanced by the heroic voyage of Barendz； so nobly described by Mr。 Motleyis now the chief geographical problem。 East India Companies； in place of petty guilds of weavers and bakers； bear witness to the vast commercial progress。 We find England； fresh from her stupendous victory over the whole power of Spain； again in the front rank of nations； France； under the most astute of modern sovereigns； taking her place for a time as the political leader of the civilized world； Spain； with her evil schemes baffled in every quarter； sinking into that terrible death…like lethargy； from which she has hardly yet awakened； and which must needs call forth our pity； though it is but the deserved retribution for her past behaviour。 While the little realm of the Netherlands； filched and cozened from the unfortunate Jacqueline by the 〃good〃 Duke of Burgundy； carried over to Austria as the marriage…portion of Lady Mary； sent down to Spain as the personal inheritance of the 〃prudent〃 Philip； and by him intolerably tormented with an Inquisition； a Blood…Council； and a Duke of Alva； has after a forty years' war of independence taken its position for a time as the greatest of commercial nations； with the most formidable navy and one of the best disciplined armies yet seen upon the earth。
But the central phenomenon of the sixteenth century is the culmination of the Protestant movement in its decisive proclamation by Luther。 For nearly three hundred years already the power of the Church had been declining； and its function as a civilizing agency had been growing more and more obsolete。 The first great blow at its supremacy had been directed with partial success in the thirteenth century by the Emperor Frederick II。 Coincident with this attack from without； we find a reformation begun within； as exemplified in the Dominican and Franciscan movements。 The second great blow was aimed by Philip IV。 of France； and this time it struck with terrible force。 The removal of the Papacy to Avignon； in 1305； was the virtual though unrecognized abdication of its beneficent supremacy。 Bereft of its dignity and independence； from that time forth it ceased to be the defender of national unity against baronial anarchy； of popular rights against monarchical usurpation； and became a formidable instrument of despotism and oppression。 Through the vicissitudes of the great schism in the fourteenth century； and the refractory councils in the fifteenth； its position became rapidly more and more retrograde and demoralized。 And when； in 1530； it joined its forces with those of Charles V。； in crushing the liberties of the worthiest of mediaeval republics； it became evident that the cause of freedom and progress must henceforth be intrusted to some more faithful champion。 The revolt of Northern Europe； led by Luther and Henry VIII。 was but the articulate announcement of this altered state of affairs。 So long as the Roman Church had been felt to be the enemy of tyrannical monarchs and the steadfast friend of the people； its encroachments； as represented by men like Dunstan and Becket； were regarded with popular favour。 The strength of the Church lay ever in its democratic instincts； and when these were found to have abandoned it； the indignant protest of Luther sufficed to tear away half of Europe from its allegiance。
By the end of the sixteenth century； we find the territorial struggle between the Church and the reformed religion substantially decided。 Protestantism and Catholicism occupied then the same respective areas which they now occupy。 Since 1600 there has been no instance of a nation passing from one form of worship to the other； and in all probability there never will be。 Since the wholesale dissolution of religious beliefs wrought in the last century； the whole issue between Romanism and Protestantism； regarded as dogmatic systems； is practically dead。 M。 Renan is giving expression to an almost self…evident truth； when he says that religious development is no longer to proceed by way of sectarian proselytism； but by way of harmonious internal development。 The contest is no longer between one theology and another； but it is between the theological and the scientific methods of interpreting natural phenomena。 The sixteenth century has to us therefore the interest belonging to a rounded and completed tale。 It contains within itself substantially the entire history of the final stage of the theological reformation。
This great period falls naturally into two divisions； the first corresponding very nearly with the reigns of Charles V。 and Henry VIII。； and the second with the age of Philip II。 and Elizabeth。 The first of these periods was filled with the skirmishes which were to open the great battle of the Reformation。 At first the strength and extent of the new revolution were not altogether apparent。 While the Inquisition was vigorously crushing out the first symptoms of disaffection in Spain； it at one time seemed as if the Reformers were about to gain the whole of the Empire； besides acquiring an excellent foothold in France。 Again； while England was wavering between the old and the new faith； the last hopes of the Reform in Germany seemed likely to be destroyed by the military genius of Charles。 But in Maurice； the red…bearded hero of Saxony； Charles found more than his match。 The picture of the rapid and desperate march of Maurice upon Innspruck； and of the great Emperor flying for his life at the very hour of his imagined triumph； has still for us an intenser interest than almost any other scene of that age； for it was the event which proved that Protestantism was not a mere local insurrection which a monarch like Charles could easily put down； but a gigantic revolution against which all the powers in the world might well strive in vain。
With the abdication of Charles in 1556 the new period may be said to begin； and it is here that Mr。 Motley's history commences。 Events crowded thick and fast。 In 1556 Philip II。； a prince bred and educated for the distinct purpose of suppressing heresy； succeeded to the rule of the most powerful empire which had been seen since the days of the Antonines。 In the previous year a new era had begun at the court of Rome。 The old race of pagan pontiffs； the Borgias； the Farneses； and the Medicis； had come to an end； and the papal th