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those persons who in a season of scarcity； when prices are rapidly rising； buy up the 〃necessaries of life；〃 thereby still increasing for a time the cost of living。 Such persons are commonly assailed with specious generalities to the effect that they are enemies of society。 People whose only ideas are 〃moral ideas〃 regard them as heartless sharpers who fatten upon the misery of their fellow…creatures。 And it is sometimes hinted that such 〃practices〃 ought to be stopped by legislation。
Now； so far is this prejudice； which is a very old one； from being justified by facts； that； instead of being an evil； speculation in breadstuffs and other necessaries is one of the chief agencies by which in modern times and civilized countries a real famine is rendered almost impossible。 This natural monopoly operates in two ways。 In the first place； by raising prices； it checks consumption； putting every one on shorter allowance until the season of scarcity is over； and thus prevents the scarcity from growing into famine。 In the second place； by raising prices； it stimulates importation from those localities where abundance reigns and prices are low。 It thus in the long run does much to equalize the pressure of a time of dearth and diminish those extreme oscillations of prices which interfere with the even； healthy course of trade。 A government which； in a season of high prices； does anything to check such speculation； acts about as sagely as the skipper of a wrecked vessel who should refuse to put his crew upon half rations。
The turning…point of the great Dutch Revolution； so far as it concerned the provinces which now constitute Belgium； was the famous siege and capture of Antwerp by Alexander Farnese； Duke of Parma。 The siege was a long one； and the resistance obstinate； and the city would probably not have been captured if famine had not come to the assistance of the besiegers。 It is interesting； therefore； to inquire what steps the civic authorities had taken to prevent such a calamity。 They knew that the struggle before them was likely to be the life…and…death struggle of the Southern Netherlands； they knew that there was risk of their being surrounded so that relief from without would be impossible； they knew that their assailant was one of the most astute and unconquerable of men； by far the greatest general of the sixteenth century。 Therefore they proceeded to do just what our Republican Congress； under such circumstances； would probably have done； and just what the New York Tribune； if it had existed in those days； would have advised them to do。 Finding that sundry speculators were accumulating and hoarding up provisions in anticipation of a season of high prices； they hastily decided； first of all to put a stop to such 〃selfish iniquity。〃 In their eyes the great thing to be done was to make things cheap。 They therefore affixed a very low maximum price to everything which could be eaten； and prescribed severe penalties for all who should attempt to take more than the sum by law decreed。 If a baker refused to sell his bread for a price which would have been adequate only in a time of great plenty； his shop was to be broken open； and his loaves distributed among the populace。 The consequences of this idiotic policy were twofold。
In the first place； the enforced lowness of prices prevented any breadstuffs or other provisions from being brought into the city。 It was a long time before Farnese succeeded in so blockading the Scheldt as to prevent ships laden with eatables from coming in below。 Corn and preserved meats might have been hurried by thousands of tons into the beleaguered city。 Friendly Dutch vessels； freighted with abundance； were waiting at the mouth of the river。 But all to no purpose。 No merchant would expose his valuable ship； with its cargo； to the risk of being sunk by Farnese's batteries； merely for the sake of finding a market no better than a hundred others which could be entered without incurring danger。 No doubt if the merchants of Holland had followed out the maxim Vivre pour autrui； they would have braved ruin and destruction rather than behold their neighbours of Antwerp enslaved。 No doubt if they could have risen to a broad philosophic view of the future interests of the Netherlands； they would have seen that Antwerp must be saved； no matter if some of them were to lose money by it。 But men do not yet sacrifice themselves for their fellows； nor do they as a rule look far beyond the present moment and its emergencies。 And the business of government is to legislate for men as they are； not as it is supposed they ought to be。 If provisions had brought a high price in Antwerp； they would have been carried thither。 As it was； the city； by its own stupidity； blockaded itself far more effectually than Farnese could have done it。
In the second place； the enforced lowness of prices prevented any general retrenchment on the part of the citizens。 Nobody felt it necessary to economize。 Every one bought as much bread； and ate it as freely； as if the government by insuring its cheapness had insured its abundance。 So the city lived in high spirits and in gleeful defiance of its besiegers； until all at once provisions gave out； and the government had to step in again to palliate the distress which it had wrought。 It constituted itself quartermaster…general to the community； and doled out stinted rations alike to rich and poor； with that stern democratic impartiality peculiar to times of mortal peril。 But this served only； like most artificial palliatives； to lengthen out the misery。 At the time of the surrender； not a loaf of bread could be obtained for love or money。
In this way a bungling act of legislation helped to decide for the worse a campaign which involved the territorial integrity and future welfare of what might have become a great nation performing a valuable function in the system of European communities。
The striking character of this instructive example must be our excuse for presenting it at such length。 At the beginning of the famine in Bengal the authorities legislated in very much the same spirit as the burghers who had to defend Antwerp against Parma。
〃By interdicting what it was pleased to term the monopoly of grain； it prevented prices from rising at once to their natural rates。 The Province had a certain amount of food in it； and this food had to last about nine months。 Private enterprise if left to itself would have stored up the general supply at the harvest； with a view to realizing a larger profit at a later period in the scarcity。 Prices would in consequence have immediately risen； compelling the population to reduce their consumption from the very beginning of the dearth。 The general stock would thus have been husbanded； and the pressure equally spread over the whole nine months； instead of being concentrated upon the last six。 The price of grain； in place of promptly rising to three half…pence a pound as in 1865…66； continued at three farthings during the earlier months of the famine。 During the latter ones it advanced to twopence； and in certain localities reached fourpence。〃
The course taken by the great famine of 1866 well illustrates the above views。 This famine； also； was c