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lain it； Omar's must need one likewise。 But in truth； there is no difficulty in the case； save that which stupid dogmatism has created。 The conversions of Paul and Omar are paralleled by innumerable events which occur in every period of religious or political excitement。 Far from being extraordinary； or inexplicable on natural grounds； such phenomena are just what might occasionally be looked for。
＇25＇ Saint…Hilaire： Mahomet et le Coran； p。 109。
But； says Mr。 Rogers； 〃is it possible for a moment to imagine the doting and dreaming victim of hallucinations （which M。 Renan's theory represents Paul） to be the man whose masculine sense； strong logic； practical prudence； and high administrative talent appear in the achievements of his life； and in the Epistles he has left behind him？〃 M。 Renan's theory does not； however； represent Paul as the 〃victim of hallucinations 〃to a greater degree than Mohammed。 The latter； as every one knows； laboured during much of his life under almost constant 〃hallucination〃； yet 〃masculine sense； strong logic；〃 etc。； were qualities quite as conspicuous in him as in St。 Paul。
Here； as throughout his essay； Mr。 Rogers shows himself totally unable to comprehend the mental condition of men in past ages。 If an Apostle has a dream or sees a vision； and interprets it according to the ideas of his time and country； instead of according to the ideas of scientific England in the nineteenth century Mr。 Rogers thinks he must needs be mad： and when according to the well…known law that mental excitement is contagious；＇26＇ several persons are said to have concurred in interpreting some phenomenon supernaturally； Mr。 Rogers cannot see why so many people should all go mad at once！ 〃To go mad；〃 in fact is his favourite designation for a mental act； which nearly all the human race have habitually performed in all ages； the act of mistaking subjective impressions for outward realities。 The disposition to regard all strange phenomena as manifestations of supernatural power was universally prevalent in the first century of Christianity； and long after。 Neither greatness of intellect nor thoroughness of scepticism gave exemption。 Even Julius Caesar； the greatest practical genius that ever lived； was somewhat superstitious； despite his atheism and his Vigorous common…sense。 It is too often argued that the prevalence of scepticism in the Roman Empire must have made men scrupulous about accepting miracles。 By no means。 Nothing but physical science ever drives out miracles： mere doctrinal scepticism is powerless to do it。 In the age of the Apostles； little if any radical distinction was drawn between a miracle and an ordinary occurrence。 No one supposed a miracle to be an infraction of the laws of nature； for no one had a clear idea that there were such things as laws of nature。 A miracle was simply an extraordinary act； exhibiting the power of the person who performed it。 Blank； indeed； would the evangelists have looked； had any one told them what an enormous theory of systematic meddling with nature was destined to grow out of their beautiful and artless narratives。
＇26＇ Hecker's Epidemics of the Middle Ages； pp。 87…152。
The incapacity to appreciate this frame of mind renders the current arguments in behalf of miracles utterly worthless。 From the fact that Celsus and others never denied the reality of the Christian miracles； it is commonly inferred that those miracles must have actually happened。 The same argument would； however； equally apply to the miracles of Apollonius and Simon Magus； for the Christians never denied the reality of these。 What these facts really prove is that the state of human intelligence was as I have just described it： and the inference to be drawn from them is that no miraculous account emanating from an author of such a period is worthy of serious attention。 When Mr。 Rogers supposes that if the miracles had not really happened they would have been challenged； he is assuming that a state of mind existed in which it was possible for miracles to be challenged； and thus commits an anachronism as monstrous as if he had attributed the knowledge of some modern invention； such as steamboats； to those early ages。
Mr。 Rogers seems to complain of M。 Renan for 〃quietly assuming〃 that miracles are invariably to be rejected。 Certainly a historian of the present day who should not make such an assumption would betray his lack of the proper qualifications for his profession。 It is not considered necessary for every writer to begin his work by setting out to prove the first principles of historical criticism。 They are taken for granted。 And； as M。 Renan justly says； a miracle is one of those things which must be disbelieved until it is proved。 The onus probandi lies on the assertor of a fact which conflicts with universal experience。 Nevertheless； the great number of intelligent persons who； even now； from dogmatic reasons； accept the New Testament miracles； forbids that they should be passed over in silence like similar phenomena elsewhere narrated。 But； in the present state of historical science； the arguing against miracles is； as Colet remarked of his friend Erasmus's warfare against the Thomists and Scotists of Cambridge； 〃a contest more necessary than glorious or difficult。〃 To be satisfactorily established； a miracle needs at least to be recorded by an eyewitness； and the mental attainments of the witness need to be thoroughly known besides。 Unless he has a clear conception of the difference between the natural and the unnatural order of events； his testimony； however unimpeachable on the score of honesty； is still worthless。 To say that this condition was fulfilled by those who described the New Testament miracles； would be absurd。 And in the face of what German criticism has done for the early Christian documents； it would be an excess of temerity to assert that any one of the supernatural accounts contained in them rests on contemporary authority。 Of all history； the miraculous part should be attested by the strongest testimony； whereas it is invariably attested by the weakest。 And the paucity of miracles wherever we have contemporary records； as in the case of primitive Islamism； is a most significant fact。
In attempting to defend his principle of never accepting a miracle； M。 Renan has indeed got into a sorry plight； and Mr。 Rogers； in controverting him； has not greatly helped the matter。 By stirring M。 Renan's bemuddled pool； Mr。 Rogers has only bemuddled it the more。 Neither of these excellent writers seems to suspect that transmutation of species； the geologic development of the earth； and other like phenomena do not present features conflicting with ordinary experience。 Sir Charles Lyell and Mr。 Darwin would be greatly astonished to be told that their theories of inorganic and organic evolution involved any agencies not known to exist in the present course of nature。 The great achievement of these writers has been to show that all past changes of the earth and its inhabitants are to be explained as resulting from the continuous action of causes like those now in operation； and that throughout there has been nothing even faintly resembling a miracle。 M。 Renan may feel perfectly saf