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afterwards； insomuch that the latest are the worst。
Some of these records and rolls are written in Latin；
some in Norman French； and some in English。
The modes of depositing and carrying the ancient
records were curious； and there seems to have been no
very definite arrangement in this respect。 Great numbers
were kept in pouches or bags made of leather；
canvas； cordovan； or buckram； they were tied like
modern reticules。 When such pouches have escaped
damp they have preserved the parchment records for
centuries perfectly clean and uninjured。 Another kind
of receptacle for records was a small turned box； called
a 〃skippet；〃 and another was the 〃hanaper；〃 or hamper；
a basket made of twigs or wicker…work。 Chests；
coffers； and cases of various shapes and sizes formed
other receptacles for the records。 The mode of finding
the particular document required was not by a
system of paging and an index； as in a modern book；
because the arrangement of the written sheets did not
admit of this； but there were letters； signs； and inscriptions；
or labels for this purpose； they constitute
an odd assemblage； comprising ships； scales； balances；
castles； plants； animals； etc。； in most instances the
signs or symbols bear some analogy； or supposed analogy；
with the subject of the record； such as an oak
on a record relating to the forest laws； a head in a cowl
on one relating to a monastery； scales on one relating
to coining； etc。
At a time when books were prepared by hand instead
of by printing； and when each copy became
very valuable； books were treated with a degree of
respect which can be hardly understood at the present
day。 The clergy and the monks were almost exclusively
the readers of those days； and they held the
other classes of society in such contempt； in all that
regarded literature and learning； that Bishop de Burg；
who wrote about five centuries ago； expresses an opinion
that 〃Laymen； to whom it matters not whether
they look at a book turned wrong side upwards or
spread before them in natural order； are altogether
unworthy of any communion with books。〃
It is stated by Mr。 Knight； in his 〃Life of Caxton：〃
〃We have abundant evidence； whatever be the
scarcity of books as compared with the growth of
scholarship； that the ecclesiastics laboured most
diligently to multiply books for their own establishments。
In every great abbey there was a room
called the Scriptorium； where boys and novices were
constantly employed in multiplying the service…
books of the choir； and the less valuable books
for the library； whilst the monks themselves laboured
in their cells upon bibles and missals。 Equal
pains were taken in providing books for those who
received a liberal education in collegiate establishments。〃
Warton says：
〃At the foundation of Winchester College； one
or more transcribers were hired and employed by
the founder to make books for the library。 They
transcribed and took their food within the college；
as appears by computation of expenses on their
account now remaining。 But there are many indications
that even kings and nobles had not the advantage
of scholars by profession； and； possessing
few books of their own； had sometimes to borrow
of their more favoured subjects。〃
We learn from another source that the great not
only procured books by purchase； but employed transcribers
to make them for their libraries。 The manuscript
expense account of Sir John Howard； afterwards
Duke of Norfolk； shows in 1467； Thomas Lympnor；
that is Thomas the Limner of Bury； was paid the sum
of fifty shillings and two pence for a book which he
had transcribed and ornamented； including the vellum
and binding。 The limner's bill is made up of a number
of items； 〃for whole vignettes； and half…vignettes；
and capital letters； and flourishing and plain writing。〃
These transcribers and limners worked principally
upon parchment and vellum； for the use of paper was
by no means extensive until the invention of the art
of printing。 Some of the old manuscripts contain
drawings representing a copier or transcriber at work；
where the monk is represented as provided with a
singular and tolerably complete set of apparatus to
aid him in his work。 The desk for containing the
sheet or skin on which he is writing； the clasp to keep
this sheet flat； the inkstand； the pen； and the knife；
the manuscript from which the copy is being made；
the desk for containing that manuscript； and the
weight for keeping it in its place；all are shown； with
a clearness which； despite of bad perspective； renders
them quite intelligible。
Of the two substances； parchment and vellum； before
the invention of paper； another word or two may be
said。 Parchment is made from the skin of sheep or
lambs； vellum； from that of very young calves （sometimes
unborn ones）； but the process of preparing is
pretty much the same in both cases。 When the hair
or wool has been removed； the skin is steeped in lime
water； and then stretched on a square frame in a light
manner。 While so stretched； it is scraped on the
flesh side with a blunt iron； wetted with a moist rag；
covered with pounded chalk； and rubbed well with
pumice stone。 After a time； these operations are
repeated； but without the use of chalk； the skin is
then turned； and scraped on the hair side once only；
the flesh side is then scraped once more； and again
rubbed over with chalk； which is brushed off with a
piece of lambskin retaining the wool。 All this is
done by the skinner； who allows the skin to dry on a
frame； and then cuts it out and sends it to the parchment
maker； who repeats the operation with a sharper
tool； using a sack stuffed with flocks （wool or hair） to
lay the skin upon； instead of stretching it on a frame。
Respecting the quality； value； and preparation of
parchment in past ages； it is stated in the 〃Penny
Cyclopaedia〃 that parchment from the seventh to the
tenth century was 〃white and good； and at the
earliest of these periods it appears to have nearly
superseded papyrus； which was brittle and more
perishable。 A very few books of the seventh century
have leaves of parchment and papyrus mixed； that
the former costly material might strengthen and support
the friable paper。 About the eleventh century
it grew worse； and a dirty colored parchment is
evidence of a want of antiquity。 This may possibly
arise from the circumstances that writers of this time
prepared their own parchment； and they were probably
not so skilled as manufacturers。 A curious
passage from a sermon of Hildebert； Archbishop of
Tours； who was born in 1054； is a voucher for this
fact。 The sermon is on the 〃Book of Life；〃 which
he recommends his hearers to obtain：
'Do you know what a writer does？ He first
cleanses his parchment from the grease； and takes
off the principal part of the dirt； then he entirely
rubs off the hair and fibres with pumice stone；