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ink…writing instruments in vogue would have necessitated
the employment of lampblack suspended in a
vehicle of thick gum； or in the form of a paint。 Both
of these maybe termed pigmentary inks。 The use of
thin inks would have caused spreading or blotting and
thus rendered the writing illegible。
The Encyclopaedia Britannica generalizes its remarks
on this subject：
〃The earliest writings were purely monumental
and accordingly those materials were chosen which
were supposed to last the longest。 The same idea
of perpetuity which in architecture finds its most
striking exposition in the pyramids was repeated；
in the case of literary records； in the two columns
mentioned by Josephus； the one of stone and the
other of brick； on which the children of Seth wrote
their inventions and astronomical discoveries； in
the pillars in Crete on which； according to Porphyry；
the ceremonies of the Corybantes were inscribed；
in the leaden tablets containinlu the works of Hesiod；
deposited in the temple of the Muses； in Boeotia；
in the ten commandments on stone delivered by
Moses； and in the laws of Solon； inscribed on planks
of wood。 The notion of a literary production surviving
the destruction of the materials on which it
was first writtenthe 'momentum； aere perennius'
of Horace's ambitionwas unknown before the discovery
of substances for systematic transcription。
〃Tablets of ivory or metal were in common use
among the Greeks and Romans。 When made of
woodsometimes of citron； but usually of beech or
firtheir inner sides were coated with wax； on
which the letters were traced with a pointed pen or
stiletto （stylus）； one end of which was used for
erasure。 It was with his stylus that Caesar stabbed
Casca in the arm when attacked by his murderers。
Wax tablets of this kind continued in partial use in
Europe during the middle ages； the oldest extant
specimen； now in the museum at Florence； belongs
to the year 1301。〃
Later the Hebrew Scriptures were written in ink or
paint upon the skins of ceremonially clean animals or
even birds。 These were rolled upon sticks and fastened
with a cord； the ends of which were sealed when
security was an object。 They were written in columns；
and usually upon one side； only。 The writing was
from right to left； the upper margin was three fingers
broad； the lower one four fingers； a breadth of two
fingers separated the columns。 The columns ran across
the width of the sheet； the rolled ends of which were
held vertically in the respective hands。 When one
column was read； another was exposed to view by unrolling
it from the end in the left hand； while the
former was hidden from view by rolling up the end
grasped by the right band。 The pen was a reed； the
ink black； carried in a bottle suspended from the girdle。
The Samaritan Pentateuch is very ancient； as is
proved by the criticisms of Talmudic writers。 A copy
of it was acquired in 1616 by Pietro della Valle； one
of the first discoverers of the cuneiform inscriptions。
It was thus introduced to the notice of Europe。 It is
claimed by the Samaritans of Nablus that their copy
was written by Abisha； the great…grandson of Aaron；
in the thirteenth year of the settlement of the land of
Canaan by the children of Israel。 The copies of it
brought to Europe are all written in black ink on vellum
or 〃cotton〃 paper； and vary from 12mo to
folio。 The scroll used by the Samaritans is written in
gold letters。 （See Smith's 〃Dictionary of the Bible；〃
vol。 III； pp。 1106…1118。） Its claims to great antiquity
are not admitted by scholars。
The enumeration of some of the modes of writing
may be interesting：
The Mexican writing is in vertical columns； beginning
at the bottom。
The Chinese and Japanese write in vertical columns；
beginning at the top and passing from left to right。
The Egyptian hieroglyphics are written invertical
columns or horizontal lines according to the shape and
position of the tablet。 It is said that with the horizontal
writing the direction is indifferent； but that the
figures of men and animals face the beginning of the
line。 With figures； the units stand on the left。
The Egyptians also wrote from right to left in the
hieratic and demotic and enchorial styles。 The Palasgians
did the same； and were followed by the Etruscans。
In the demotic character； Dr。 Brugsch remarks
that though the general direction of the writing was
usually from right to left； yet the individual letters were
formed from left to right； as is evident from the unfinished
ends of horizontal letters when the ink failed
in the pen。
In writing numbers in the hieratic and enchorial
the units were placed to the left。 The Arabs write
from right to left； but received their numerals from
India； whence they call them 〃Hindee；〃 and there the
arrangement of their numerals is like our own； units
to the right。
The following noteworthy passage is taken from
Humphreys' work 〃On the Origin and Progress of the
Art of Writing：〃
〃Nearly all the principal methods of ancient
writing may be divided into square capitals； rounded
capitals； and cursive letters； the square capitals
being termed simply capitals； the rounded capitals
uncials； and the small letters； or such as had
changed their form during the creation of a running
hand； minuscule。 Capitals are； strictly speaking；
such letters as retain the earliest settled form of
an alphabet； being generally of such angular
shapes as could conveniently be carved on wood or
stone； or engraved in metal； to be stamped on
coins。 The earliest Latin MSS。 known are written
entirely in capitals like inscriptions in metal or
marble。
* * * * *
The uncial letters； as they are termed； appear
to have arisen as writing on papyrus or vellum became
common； when many of the straight lines of
the capitals； in that kind of writing； gradually acquired
a curved form； to facilitate their more rapid
execution。 However this may be； from the sixth
to the eighth； or even 10th century； these uncials
or partly rounded capitals prevail。
〃The modern minuscule； differing from the ancient
cursive character； appears to have arisen in
the following manner： During the 6th and 7th
centuries； a kind of transition style prevailed in
Italy and some other parts of Europe； the letters
composing which have been termed semi…uncials；
which； in a further transition； became more like
those of the old Roman cursive。 This manner；
when definitely formed； became what is now termed
the minuscule manner； it began to prevail over
uncials in a certain class of MSS。 about the 8th
century； and towards the 10th its general use was；
with few exceptions； established。 It is said to
have been occasionally used as early as the 5th
century； but I am unable to cite an authentic existing
monument。 The Psalter of Alfred the Great；
written in the 9th century； is in a small